Annotated Bibliography esssay

Origins of narcissism in kids
Eddie Brummelmana,b,1, Sander Thomaesb,c, Stefanie A. Nelemansd
, Bram Orobio de Castrob
, Geertjan Overbeeka
,
and Brad J. Bushmane,f
a
Analysis Institute of Little one Growth and Training, Division of Academic Sciences, College of Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1001 NG, The
Netherlands; b
Division of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht College, Utrecht 3584 CS, The Netherlands; c
Middle for Analysis on Self and Identification,
Division of Psychology, College of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, England; d
Analysis Centre Adolescent Growth, Division of Youth
and Household, Utrecht College, Utrecht 3584 CS, The Netherlands; e
Division of Communication and Psychology, The Ohio State College, Columbus,
OH 43210-1339; and f
Division of Communication Science, VU College Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1081 HV, The Netherlands
Edited by Susan T. Fiske, Princeton College, Princeton, NJ, and authorised February 12, 2015 (obtained for evaluate November 7, 2014)
Narcissism ranges have been growing amongst Western youth, and
contribute to societal issues comparable to aggression and violence.
The origins of narcissism, nonetheless, will not be effectively understood. Right here,
we report, to our information, the primary potential longitudinal
proof on the origins of narcissism in kids. We in contrast
two views: social studying idea (positing that narcissism is
cultivated by parental overvaluation) and psychoanalytic idea
(positing that narcissism is cultivated by lack of parental heat).
We timed the research in late childhood (ages 7–12), when particular person
variations in narcissism first emerge. In 4 6-mo waves, 565
kids and their dad and mom reported little one narcissism, little one selfesteem, parental overvaluation, and parental heat. 4-wave
cross-lagged panel fashions had been carried out. Outcomes help social
studying idea and contradict psychoanalytic idea: Narcissism
was predicted by parental overvaluation, not by lack of parental
heat. Thus, kids appear to accumulate narcissism, partly, by internalizing dad and mom’ inflated views of them (e.g., “I’m superior to
others” and “I’m entitled to privileges”). Testifying to the specificity of this discovering, shallowness was predicted by parental
heat, not by parental overvaluation. These findings uncover
early socialization experiences that domesticate narcissism, and should
inform interventions to curtail narcissistic improvement at an
early age.
childhood narcissism | childhood shallowness | parental overvaluation |
parental heat | socialization
The mythological determine Narcissus was a good-looking, selfabsorbed, and useless younger man who passionately fell in love
together with his personal reflection within the water. “I burn with love for—me!”
Narcissus cried, “the spark I kindle is the torch I carry.” Narcissus
was unable to cease his personal reflection, and he
in the end pined away by the waterside. Psychologists have come
to know Narcissus’ character as narcissism. Though effectively
recognized in its excessive type as Narcissistic Character Dysfunction,
narcissism is a character trait through which individuals within the basic
inhabitants differ from each other. Narcissists really feel superior to
others, fantasize about private successes, and consider they deserve particular remedy (1). When narcissists really feel humiliated,
they’re liable to lash out aggressively (2, three) and even violently (four).
Narcissists are additionally at elevated danger for psychological well being issues,
together with drug habit, despair, and anxiousness (5). Analysis
reveals that narcissism is larger in Western than non-Western
nations (6), and means that narcissism ranges have been
steadily growing amongst Western youth over the previous few
many years (7; see ref. eight for an alternate view).
The origins of narcissism, nonetheless, will not be effectively understood.
Right here, we report, to our information, the primary potential longitudinal proof on the origins of narcissism in kids. We
pitted two main theories towards one another: social studying
idea and psychoanalytic idea. Social studying idea holds
that kids are more likely to develop as much as be narcissistic when their
dad and mom overvalue them: when their dad and mom see them as extra
particular and extra entitled than different kids (9). When dad and mom
overvalue their little one, they see their little one as “God’s reward to man”
(9) and “are below a compulsion to ascribe each perfection to
the kid—which sober commentary would discover no event to
do” (10). Consequently, kids may internalize the assumption that
they’re particular people who’re entitled to privileges. In
distinction, psychoanalytic idea holds that kids are more likely to
develop as much as be narcissistic when their dad and mom lack heat towards
them (11, 12). When dad and mom lack heat, they specific little
affection, appreciation, and constructive have an effect on towards their little one,
and so they present little enjoyment of their little one (13). In such an
upbringing, kids may place themselves on a pedestal to strive
to acquire from others the approval they didn’t obtain from
their dad and mom.
Each theories have obtained preliminary help. Cross-sectional analysis finds that grownup narcissists are extra seemingly than
nonnarcissists to recollect their dad and mom as overvaluing and
missing heat in childhood (14; for overviews, see refs. 15 and
16). These findings are inconclusive, nonetheless. First, the research
had been cross-sectional, and had been due to this fact unable to research
course of results. Second, the research had been usually restricted to
samples of faculty college students or adults, whereas the origins of
narcissism lie in childhood (17, 18). Third, the research usually relied on adults’ retrospective studies of early socialization experiences. It’s no shock that grownup narcissists bear in mind their
dad and mom overvaluing them: narcissists usually really feel admired by
many others, even within the face of disconfirming proof (19).
Addressing these limitations, we carried out a four-wave multiinformant potential longitudinal research on the origins of
narcissism in kids. We timed the research in late childhood, ages
Significance
Narcissistic people really feel superior to others, fantasize about
private successes, and consider they deserve particular remedy.
After they really feel humiliated, they usually lash out aggressively or
even violently. Sadly, little is understood in regards to the origins
of narcissism. Such information is necessary for designing
interventions to curtail narcissistic improvement. We reveal that narcissism in kids is cultivated by parental
overvaluation: dad and mom believing their little one to be extra particular
and extra entitled than others. In distinction, excessive shallowness in
kids is cultivated by parental heat: dad and mom expressing
affection and appreciation towards their little one. These findings
present that narcissism is partly rooted in early socialization
experiences, and recommend that parent-training interventions
can assist curtail narcissistic improvement and cut back its prices
for society.
Creator contributions: E.B., S.T., B.O.d.C., and G.O. designed analysis; E.B. carried out
analysis; E.B. and S.A.N. analyzed knowledge; and E.B., S.T., S.A.N., B.O.d.C., G.O., and B.J.B.
wrote the paper.
The authors declare no battle of curiosity.
This text is a PNAS Direct Submission.
1
To whom correspondence needs to be addressed. E mail: e.brummelman@uva.nl.
This text accommodates supporting info on-line at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.
1073/pnas.1420870112/-/DCSupplemental.
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7–12, a key developmental section throughout which particular person variations in narcissism first emerge (17, 18). Certainly, analysis
finds that, from this age, narcissism could be assessed validly
(17, 18). Youngsters this age are capable of type the worldwide evaluations
of themselves as an individual (e.g., “I’m a particular particular person”) (20) that
underlie narcissism. Moreover, they’ve usually outgrown the
unrealistically constructive, inflated self-views which can be normative for
youthful kids (20), making narcissistic self-views nonnormative.
Though narcissists really feel superior to others and really feel entitled to
privileges, they don’t seem to be essentially happy with themselves as
an individual. That’s, narcissism and shallowness seize two completely different dimensions of the self (21, 22). As students put it, “Excessive
shallowness means considering effectively of oneself, whereas narcissism
includes passionately desirous to suppose effectively of oneself” (2). Moreover, excessive shallowness, not like narcissism, predicts decrease
ranges of hysteria and despair over time (23). An necessary
query, due to this fact, is whether or not the socialization experiences that
might domesticate narcissism (e.g., parental overvaluation, lack of
parental heat) additionally foster excessive shallowness. We due to this fact
in contrast the socialization of narcissism with the socialization
of shallowness.
Individuals had been 565 kids (ages 7–11 at wave 1) and their
dad and mom, 415 moms and 290 fathers. The research consisted of 4
6-mo waves. In every wave, kids accomplished well-established
questionnaires to evaluate narcissism (e.g., “children like me deserve
one thing further”) (17), shallowness (e.g., “children like me are comfortable
with themselves as an individual”) (24), and parental heat individually for moms and dads (e.g., “my father/mom lets me
know he/she loves me”) (25); dad and mom accomplished well-established
questionnaires to evaluate parental overvaluation (e.g., “my little one is
extra particular than different kids”) (26) and parental heat
(e.g., “I let my little one know I like him/her”) (25).
Outcomes
We carried out cross-lagged panel fashions in Mplus v7.11 (27) to
look at whether or not parental socialization (overvaluation, heat)
predicts subsequent modifications in kids’s self-views (narcissism,
shallowness), and vice versa (Supplies and Strategies).
According to social studying idea, parental overvaluation
predicted little one narcissism over time, however not vice versa (Fig. 1).
Paternal overvaluation predicted little one narcissism one wave later
(B = Zero.Zero66, β = Zero.067–Zero.Zero68, P = Zero.021), however little one narcissism did
not predict paternal overvaluation one wave later (B = –Zero.019,
P = Zero.496). Equally, maternal overvaluation predicted little one
narcissism one wave later (B = Zero.Zero68, β = Zero.063–Zero.071, P =
Zero.003), however little one narcissism didn’t predict maternal overvaluation one wave later (B = Zero.026, P = Zero.166).
Testifying to the specificity of those findings, parental overvaluation didn’t predict little one shallowness over time. Paternal
overvaluation didn’t predict little one shallowness one wave later
(B = –Zero.036, P = Zero.210), nor did little one shallowness predict paternal overvaluation one wave later (B = –Zero.045, P = Zero.Zero90).
Equally, maternal overvaluation didn’t predict little one selfesteem one wave later (B = Zero.Zero05, P = Zero.807), nor did little one selfesteem predict maternal overvaluation one wave later (B =
–Zero.Zero06, P = Zero.758). Thus, parental overvaluation didn’t predict
kids’s constructive self-views on the whole; it predicted kids’s
narcissistic self-views specifically.
Inconsistent with psychoanalytic idea, lack of parental heat
didn’t predict narcissism over time. Neither child-reported nor
parent-reported parental heat predicted little one narcissism one
wave later (P values > Zero.276), nor did little one narcissism predict
child-reported or parent-reported parental heat one wave later
(P values > Zero.157).
In distinction, parental heat did predict little one shallowness.
Extra particularly, child-reported parental heat, not like parentreported parental heat (P values >Zero.129), predicted little one selfesteem over time, and vice versa (Fig. 2). The discovering that
kids’s shallowness is predicted by child-reported however not
parent-reported parental heat is in line with sociometer
idea (28), which holds that it’s perceptions of social acceptance, not social acceptance itself, that form shallowness. Childreported paternal heat predicted little one shallowness one wave
later (B = Zero.108, β = Zero.104–Zero.106, P < Zero.001), and little one selfesteem predicted child-reported paternal heat one wave later
(B = Zero.072, β = Zero.078–Zero.084, P = Zero.001). Equally, child-reported
maternal heat predicted little one shallowness one wave later (B =
Zero.064, β = Zero.052–Zero.055, P = Zero.019), and little one shallowness predicted child-reported maternal heat one wave later (B =
Zero.046, β = Zero.060–Zero.063, P = Zero.Zero10). Thus, overvaluation particularly predicted narcissism, not shallowness, whereas heat
particularly predicted shallowness, not narcissism.
Dialogue
What are the origins of narcissism? This query has a protracted
historical past, each within the discipline of psychology and in well-liked tradition,
however conclusive proof has been missing. Our longitudinal
findings help social studying idea and contradict psychoanalytic idea: Narcissism was predicted by parental overvaluation, not by lack of parental heat. Testifying to the
specificity of this discovering, shallowness was predicted by parental
heat, not by parental overvaluation. These findings are in line with the view that kids come to see themselves as they
consider to be seen by important others, as in the event that they be taught to see
themselves by way of others’ eyes (29). “Every to every a lookingglass, displays the opposite that doth move,” as Charles Cooley (29)
described it. When kids are seen by their dad and mom as being
extra particular and extra entitled than different kids, they might
internalize the view that they’re superior people, a view that
is on the core of narcissism. Nonetheless, when kids are handled
by their dad and mom with affection and appreciation, they might internalize the view that they’re helpful people, a view that’s
on the core of shallowness.
An alternate interpretation of our findings could be that
dad and mom who overvalue their kids are more likely to be narcissistic
themselves: Parental overvaluation, then, may predict kids’s
narcissism merely as a result of kids mimic or inherit dad and mom’
narcissism ranges. Extra analyses, nonetheless, refute this
Fig. 1. Standardized longitudinal associations between parental overvaluation and little one narcissism. Solely important cross-lagged paths and one-wave
stability paths are displayed. Associations for moms and dads are displayed on the left and proper facet of the ahead slash, respectively.
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interpretation (SI Textual content). Parental narcissism and overvaluation
had been solely weakly-to-moderately correlated. Moreover, even
when controlling for parental narcissism, parental overvaluation
nonetheless robustly and considerably predicted elevated little one narcissism over time. Thus, parental overvaluation contributes to the
improvement of narcissism in kids above and past dad and mom’
personal narcissism ranges.
The findings additionally add to the literature exhibiting that selfesteem is related to perceived social acceptance (30–32).
Our longitudinal findings present bidirectional associations between kids’s shallowness and one key type of perceived social acceptance: how a lot parental heat kids expertise.
An fascinating chance, then, is that shallowness represents an
inner gauge (or “sociometer”) of 1’s social acceptance, and
that it isn’t shallowness itself however quite the underlying notion of being accepted by others that confers advantages to
kids (e.g., decrease ranges of hysteria and despair) (28).
The findings may additionally inform intervention efforts. As of but,
proof-effective interventions to stop or cut back narcissism in
youth are missing. A crucial step towards such interventions is
information in regards to the processes that lead as much as narcissism (16).
On condition that narcissism is cultivated by parental overvaluation,
parent-training interventions could be one efficient means to
curtail narcissistic improvement. Such interventions can assist
dad and mom convey affection and appreciation to kids with out
conveying to kids that they’re superior to others.
In fact, parental overvaluation is just not the only real origin of
narcissism. The possible affiliation between parental overvaluation and narcissism was modest in measurement. Like different character traits, narcissism is reasonably heritable and partly
rooted in early rising temperamental traits (33). Some kids, due to their temperamental traits, could be extra seemingly
than others to develop into narcissistic when uncovered to parental
overvaluation (16, 21). An necessary job for future work is to
establish these person-by-environment interactions.
Narcissism is a rising drawback in Western society. For the reason that
1980s, Western society has develop into more and more involved with
elevating kids’s shallowness (34), and proof-effective shallowness
interventions have been developed (35). Nonetheless, of their makes an attempt
to boost shallowness, dad and mom usually intuitively depend on lavishing
kids with reward, telling them that they’re particular and
distinctive, and giving them distinctive remedy (26, 36). Our
outcomes present that, quite than elevating shallowness, such “overvaluing” practices may inadvertently elevate narcissism in kids. Collective efforts to cut back parental overvaluation, due to this fact,
maintain promise in curbing the societal rise in narcissism.
Supplies and Strategies
Individuals. Individuals had been 565 kids (7–11 y previous at wave 1; imply =
9.56 y, SD = Zero.93; 54% women; 89% of Dutch origin) and their dad and mom: 290
fathers (imply = 44.67 y, SD = four.60; 94% of Dutch origin) and 415 moms
(imply = 42.24 y, SD = three.97; 92% of Dutch origin). Individuals had been recruited
from 17 elementary colleges within the Netherlands serving lower-to-upper
center class neighborhoods. The varsity boards supported all procedures. Of
all kids who had been approached, 75% obtained lively parental consent
and took part within the research. All kids gave their assent. The research
consisted of 4 6-mo waves (T1–T4). The research was carried out below
a protocol authorised by the analysis ethics committee of Social and Behavioral Sciences of Utrecht College. Youngsters accomplished questionnaires in
their lessons below the supervision of educated analysis assistants; dad and mom
accomplished questionnaires at residence. Attrition entailed a mean of four% of
kids, 18% of fathers, and 16% of moms per wave. Little’s Lacking
Fully at Random take a look at produced a normed χ2 (χ2
/df) of 1.03, [χ2
(2,847) =
2939.004, P = 0.112], suggesting that attrition was random (37). Lacking knowledge
had been dealt with in Mplus utilizing the Full Info Most-Chance
process (27).
Measures. Every assemble was assessed every wave utilizing well-established
questionnaires. For every assemble, responses had been averaged throughout objects.
Desk S1 shows descriptive statistics.
Little one narcissism was measured by way of child-report utilizing the ten-item Childhood Narcissism Scale (e.g., “I like to consider how extremely good I’m”
and “children like me deserve one thing further”; Zero = under no circumstances true, three = fully true) (17).
Little one shallowness was measured by way of child-report utilizing the six-item World
Self-Price subscale of the Self-Notion Profile for Youngsters (e.g., “some
children are proud of themselves as an individual” and “some children just like the form of
particular person they’re”; Zero = I’m not like these children in any respect, three = I’m precisely like these
children) (24).
Parental overvaluation was measured by way of parent-report utilizing the sevenitem Parental Overvaluation Scale (e.g., “my little one is extra particular than different
kids” and “my little one deserves particular remedy”; Zero = under no circumstances true, three =
fully true) (26).
Parental heat was measured by way of each parent-report and child-report
utilizing the eight-item Heat Subscale of the Quick Type of the Parental
Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (e.g., mum or dad report: “I let my little one know
I like him/her” and “I deal with my little one gently and with kindness”; little one report:
“my father/mom lets me know he/she loves me” and “my father/mom
treats me gently and with kindness”; Zero = under no circumstances true, three = fully true)
(25). Youngsters reported about their father and mom individually. Responses
had been averaged throughout objects. According to earlier analysis (38), settlement between parent-reported and child-reported heat was small to
reasonable (Zero.04 < R values < Zero.27).
Descriptive Information Evaluation. Desk S2 presents the zero-order correlations between research variables on the first wave. Demonstrating the independence of
little one narcissism and little one shallowness, within-wave correlations between these
constructs had been weak, starting from Zero.06 to Zero.15. Demonstrating the independence of parental overvaluation and parental heat, inside wave correlations between these constructs had been weak, each for fathers and for
moms, each for child-report and for parent-report, starting from –Zero.11 to Zero.08.
At every wave, shallowness and narcissism had been larger in boys than in women,
overvaluation was larger in fathers than in moms, and heat was larger in
moms than in fathers. Nonetheless, controlling for kids’s intercourse didn’t have an effect on the
research findings, and separate analyses had been carried out for fathers and moms.
All constructs had been comparatively steady over time: Correlations between
successive waves ranged from Zero.61 to Zero.77 for paternal overvaluation, from
Zero.72 to Zero.78 for maternal overvaluation, from Zero.59 to Zero.61 for parent-reported
paternal heat, from Zero.68 to Zero.70 for parent-reported maternal heat,
from Zero.53 to Zero.58 for child-reported paternal heat, from Zero.52 to Zero.57 for
child-reported maternal heat, from Zero.54 to Zero.67 for little one narcissism, and
from Zero.47 to Zero.61 for little one shallowness.
Longitudinal Information Evaluation. We carried out four-wave cross-lagged panel
fashions in Mplus v7.11 (27) utilizing maximum-likelihood estimation with SEs
Fig. 2. Standardized longitudinal associations between parental heat and little one shallowness. Solely important cross-lagged paths and one-wave stability
paths are displayed. Associations for moms and dads are displayed on the left and proper facet of the ahead slash, respectively.
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and χ2 strong to nonnormality (MLR estimator). We carried out separate
analyses for fathers and moms, for parental overvaluation and parental
heat, and for little one narcissism and little one shallowness. We ran all analyses
with and with out kids’s intercourse and age as covariates (i.e., as predictors of all
variables throughout all waves) and with and with out household as a clustering variable (i.e., eradicating variance due to some kids being from the identical
household utilizing the TYPE = COMPLEX command) (27). As a result of neither the
covariates nor household clustering affected any of the cross-lagged paths, we
reported essentially the most parsimonious fashions (i.e., these with out covariates and
household clustering).
Cross-lagged panel fashions had been examined in two steps. First, we examined
whether or not the absolutely constrained baseline mannequin demonstrated an ample match
to the information. This mannequin included all one-wave stability paths, all two-wave
stability paths (i.e., from T1 to T3, and from T2 to T4), all within-wave correlations, and all one-wave cross-lagged paths. To create a parsimonious
mannequin, we constrained all longitudinal parameters to be time invariant (i.e.,
equal over time) (39). Second, for every mannequin, we examined whether or not releasing
all parameters of curiosity (i.e., the cross-lagged paths) improved mannequin match.
As a result of it didn’t enhance mannequin match for any mannequin [Δχ2
SB(4)s < 6.79, P values >
0.148], the longitudinal cross-lagged paths parameters had been set to be time
invariant (39).
Mannequin match was assessed with the comparative match index (CFI), the basis imply
squared error of approximation (RMSEA) and 90% confidence interval (CI),
and the standardized root imply sq. residual (SRMR). CFI values ≥ Zero.90,
RMSEA values ≤ Zero.08, and SRMR values < Zero.10 point out acceptable mannequin match,
whereas CFI values ≥ Zero.95, RMSEA values ≤ Zero.05, and SRMR values < Zero.08
point out good mannequin match (39–41). The comparative match between nested fashions
was examined with the Satorra–Bentler (SB) scaled χ2 distinction take a look at (42). All
statistical checks had been two-sided on the α = Zero.05 significance stage.
Parental overvaluation and little one narcissism. The absolutely constrained baseline mannequin
for parental overvaluation and little one narcissism demonstrated good match to the
knowledge for each fathers [χ2
SB(20) = 27.275, CFI = 0.991, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.033
(0.000, 0.061), SRMR = 0.046] and moms [χ2
SB(20) = 27.942, CFI = 0.994,
RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.029 (0.000, 0.052), SRMR = 0.035].
Parental heat and little one narcissism. The absolutely constrained baseline mannequin for
parental heat and little one narcissism demonstrated good match to the information for
child-reported paternal heat [χ2
SB(20) = 38.943, CFI = 0.981, RMSEA
(90% CI) = 0.041 (0.021, 0.060), SRMR = 0.044], for child-reported maternal
heat [χ2
SB(20) = 34.163, CFI = 0.986, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.035 (0.013,
0.055), SRMR = 0.037], and for parent-reported paternal heat [χ2
SB(20) =
33.903, CFI = 0.976, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.046 (0.016, 0.071), SRMR = 0.080],
and acceptable match to the information for parent-reported maternal heat [χ2
SB(20) =
65.133, CFI = 0.956, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.069 (0.051, 0.088), SRMR = 0.112].
Parental overvaluation and little one shallowness. The absolutely constrained baseline
mannequin for parental overvaluation and little one shallowness demonstrated good
match to the information for each fathers [χ2
SB(20) = 26.019, CFI = 0.992, RMSEA
(90% CI) = 0.030 (0.000, 0.059), SRMR = 0.043], and moms [χ2
SB(20) = 35.519,
CFI = 0.987, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.040 (0.017, 0.062), SRMR = 0.043].
Parental heat and little one shallowness. The absolutely constrained baseline mannequin for
parental heat and little one shallowness demonstrated good match to the information for
child-reported paternal heat [χ2
SB(20) = 42.038, CFI = 0.975, RMSEA
(90% CI) = 0.044 (0.025, 0.063), SRMR = 0.048], and for child-reported maternal
heat [χ2
SB(20) = 32.465, CFI = 0.986, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.033 (0.008,
0.053), SRMR = 0.036], and acceptable match to the information for parent-reported
paternal heat [χ2
SB(20) = 42.310, CFI = 0.959, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.058
(0.033, 0.082), SRMR = 0.084], and for parent-reported maternal heat
[χ2
SB(20) = 66.858, CFI = 0.954, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.070 (0.052, 0.089),
SRMR = 0.113].
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. We thank Peter A. Bos and Constantine Sedikides for
their helpful feedback on the manuscript. This analysis was a part of E.B.’s
doctoral dissertation, which was accomplished on the Division of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht College, The Netherlands. The analysis was
supported by The Netherlands Group for Scientific Analysis
(Grant 431-09-Zero22).
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