Question description
DirectionsFind up to two outside examples of concepts covered on exam 1. These outside examples of concepts can be recent cartoons, newspaper articles, song lyrics, something that happened in a movie or on a TV show, etc. For each entry, you need to first describe the outside concept. This may involve posting a web link to an article or cartoon or simply a description of the TV show or news item. Then, you should explain how this relates to a concept in class including defining the psychological terms. Entries that do not sufficiently explain how the example relates to class will not receive full credit. (E.g. posting a link and saying “This site talks about parts of the racism” is not sufficient). These should be posted in the appropriate class forum.Concepts covered in exam:
Introducing Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. The word “psychology” comes from the
Greek words “psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation. Psychology is a popular
major for students, a popular topic in the public media, and a part of our everyday lives.
Television shows such as Dr. Phil feature psychologists who provide personal advice to those
with personal or family difficulties. Crime dramas such as CSI, Lie to Me, and others feature the
work of forensic psychologists who use psychological principles to help solve crimes. And many
people have direct knowledge about psychology because they have visited psychologists, for
instance, school counselors, family therapists, and religious, marriage, or bereavement
counselors.
Because we are frequently exposed to the work of psychologists in our everyday lives, we all
have an idea about what psychology is and what psychologists do. In many ways I am sure that
your conceptions are correct. Psychologists do work in forensic fields, and they do provide
counseling and therapy for people in distress. But there are hundreds of thousands of
psychologists in the world, and most of them work in other places, doing work that you are
probably not aware of.
Most psychologists work in research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they
study the behavior of humans and animals. For instance, my colleagues in the Psychology
Department at the University of Maryland study such diverse topics as anxiety in children, the
interpretation of dreams, the effects of caffeine on thinking, how birds recognize each other, how
praying mantises hear, how people from different cultures react differently in negotiation, and
the factors that lead people to engage in terrorism. Other psychologists study such topics as
alcohol and drug addiction, memory, emotion, hypnosis, love, what makes people aggressive or
helpful, and the psychologies of politics, prejudice, culture, and religion. Psychologists also work
in schools and businesses, and they use a variety of methods, including observation,
questionnaires, interviews, and laboratory studies, to help them understand behavior.
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This chapter provides an introduction to the broad field of psychology and the many approaches
that psychologists take to understanding human behavior. We will consider how psychologists
conduct scientific research, with an overview of some of the most important approaches used and
topics studied by psychologists, and also consider the variety of fields in which psychologists
work and the careers that are available to people with psychology degrees. I expect that you may
find that at least some of your preconceptions about psychology will be challenged and changed,
and you will learn that psychology is a field that will provide you with new ways of thinking
about your own thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Research Methods-
Psychological Science
Psychologists study the behavior of both humans and animals, and the main purpose of this
research is to help us understand people and to improve the quality of human lives. The results of
psychological research are relevant to problems such as learning and memory, homelessness,
psychological disorders, family instability, and aggressive behavior and violence. Psychological
research is used in a range of important areas, from public policy to driver safety. It guides court
rulings with respect to racism and sexism (Brown v. Board of Education, 1954; Fiske, Bersoff,
Borgida, Deaux, & Heilman, 1991), [1] as well as court procedure, in the use of lie detectors
during criminal trials, for example (Saxe, Dougherty, & Cross, 1985). [2] Psychological research
helps us understand how driver behavior affects safety (Fajen & Warren, 2003),[3] which
methods of educating children are most effective (Alexander & Winne, 2006; Woolfolk-Hoy,
2005), [4] how to best detect deception (DePaulo et al., 2003), [5] and the causes of terrorism
(Borum, 2004). [6]
Some psychological research is basic research. Basic research is research that answers
fundamental questions about behavior. For instance, biopsychologists study how nerves conduct
impulses from the receptors in the skin to the brain, and cognitive psychologists investigate how
different types of studying influence memory for pictures and words. There is no particular
reason to examine such things except to acquire a better knowledge of how these processes
occur. Applied research is research that investigates issues that have implications for everyday
life and provides solutions to everyday problems. Applied research has been conducted to study,
among many other things, the most effective methods for reducing depression, the types of
advertising campaigns that serve to reduce drug and alcohol abuse, the key predictors of
managerial success in business, and the indicators of effective government programs, such as
Head Start.
Basic research and applied research inform each other, and advances in science occur more
rapidly when each type of research is conducted (Lewin, 1999). [7]For instance, although research
concerning the role of practice on memory for lists of words is basic in orientation, the results
could potentially be applied to help children learn to read. Correspondingly, psychologist-
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practitioners who wish to reduce the spread of AIDS or to promote volunteering frequently base
their programs on the results of basic research. This basic AIDS or volunteering research is then
applied to help change people’s attitudes and behaviors.
The results of psychological research are reported primarily in research articles published in
scientific journals, and your instructor may require you to read some of these. The research
reported in scientific journals has been evaluated, critiqued, and improved by scientists in the
field through the process of peer review. In this book there are many citations to original
research articles, and I encourage you to read those reports when you find a topic interesting.
Most of these papers are readily available online through your college or university library. It is
only by reading the original reports that you will really see how the research process works.
Some of the most important journals in psychology are provided here for your information.
Psychological Journals
The following is a list of some of the most important journals in various subdisciplines of psychology. The research
articles in these journals are likely to be available in your college library. You should try to read the primary source
material in these journals when you can.
General Psychology
American Journal of Psychology
American Psychologist
Behavioral and Brain Sciences
Psychological Bulletin
Psychological Methods
Psychological Review
Psychological Science
Biopsychology and Neuroscience
Behavioral Neuroscience
Journal of Comparative Psychology
PsychophysiologyClinical and Counseling Psychology
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Journal of Abnormal Psychology
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
Journal of Counseling Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Cognition
Cognitive Psychology
Journal of Experimental Psychology
Journal of Memory and Language
Perception & PsychophysicsCross-Cultural, Personality, and Social Psychology
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
Journal of Personality
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
Developmental Psychology
Child Development
Developmental Psychology
Educational and School Psychology
Educational Psychologist
Journal of Educational Psychology
Review of Educational ResearchEnvironmental, Industrial, and Organizational Psychology
Journal of Applied Psychology
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
Organizational Psychology
Organizational Research Methods
Personnel Psychology
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In this chapter you will learn how psychologists develop and test their research ideas; how they
measure the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals; and how they analyze and interpret
the data they collect. To really understand psychology, you must also understand how and why
the research you are reading about was conducted and what the collected data mean. Learning
about the principles and practices of psychological research will allow you to critically read,
interpret, and evaluate research.
In addition to helping you learn the material in this course, the ability to interpret and conduct
research is also useful in many of the careers that you might choose. For instance, advertising
and marketing researchers study how to make advertising more effective, health and medical
researchers study the impact of behaviors such as drug use and smoking on illness, and computer
scientists study how people interact with computers. Furthermore, even if you are not planning a
career as a researcher, jobs in almost any area of social, medical, or mental health science require
that a worker be informed about psychological research.
Brains, Bodies, and Behavior –
Did a Neurological Disorder Cause a Musician to Compose Boléro and an Artist to
Paint It 66 Years Later?
In 1986 Anne Adams was working as a cell biologist at the University of Toronto in Ontario, Write my essay for me – CA Essay writer Canada. She took a leave
of absence from her work to care for a sick child, and while she was away, she completely changed her interests,
dropping biology entirely and turning her attention to art. In 1994 she completed her painting Unravelling Boléro, a
translation of Maurice Ravel’s famous orchestral piece onto canvas. As you can see inFigure 3.1, this artwork is a filled
with themes of repetition. Each bar of music is represented by a lacy vertical figure, with the height representing
volume, the shape representing note quality, and the color representing the music’s pitch. Like Ravel’s music (see the
video below), which is a hypnotic melody consisting of two melodial themes repeated eight times over 340 musical
bars, the theme in the painting repeats and builds, leading to a dramatic change in color from blue to orange and
pink, a representation of Boléro’s sudden and dramatic climax.
Shortly after finishing the painting, Adams began to experience behavioral problems, including increased difficulty
speaking. Neuroimages of Adams’s brain taken during this time show that regions in the front part of her brain, which
are normally associated with language processing, had begun to deteriorate, while at the same time, regions of the
brain responsible for the integration of information from the five senses were unusually well developed (Seeley et al.,
2008). [1] The deterioration of the frontal cortex is a symptom of frontotemporal dementia, a disease that is
associated with changes in artistic and musical tastes and skills (Miller, Boone, Cummings, Read, & Mishkin,
2000), [2] as well as with an increase in repetitive behaviors (Aldhous, 2008). [3]
What Adams did not know at the time was that her brain may have been undergoing the same changes that Ravel’s
had undergone 66 years earlier. In fact, it appears that Ravel may have suffered from the same neurological disorder.
Ravel composed Boléro at age 53, when he himself was beginning to show behavioral symptoms that were interfering
with his ability to move and speak. Scientists have concluded, based on an analysis of his written notes and letters,
that Ravel was also experiencing the effects of frontotemporal dementia (Amaducci, Grassi, & Boller, 2002). [4] If
Adams and Ravel were both affected by the same disease, this could explain why they both became fascinated with the
repetitive aspects of their arts, and it would present a remarkable example of the influence of our brains on behavior.
Every behavior begins with biology. Our behaviors, as well as our thoughts and feelings, are
produced by the actions of our brains, nerves, muscles, and glands. In this chapter we will begin
our journey into the world of psychology by considering the biological makeup of the human
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being, including the most remarkable of human organs—the brain. We’ll consider the structure
of the brain and also the methods that psychologists use to study the brain and to understand how
it works.
We will see that the body is controlled by an information highway known as thenervous system, a collection of hundreds of billions of specialized and interconnected cells
through which messages are sent between the brain and the rest of the body. The nervous system
consists of the central nervous system (CNS), made up of the brain and the spinal cord, and
the peripheral nervous system (PNS), the neurons that link the CNS to our skin, muscles, and
glands. And we will see that our behavior is also influenced in large part by
the endocrine system, the chemical regulator of the body that consists of glands that secrete
hormones.
Although this chapter begins at a very low level of explanation, and although the topic of study
may seem at first to be far from the everyday behaviors that we all engage in, a full
understanding of the biology underlying psychological processes is an important cornerstone of
your new understanding of psychology. We will consider throughout the chapter how our
biology influences important human behaviors, including our mental and physical health, our
reactions to drugs, as well as our aggressive responses and our perceptions of other people. This
chapter is particularly important for contemporary psychology because the ability to measure
biological aspects of behavior, including the structure and function of the human brain, is
progressing rapidly, and understanding the biological foundations of behavior is an increasingly
important line of psychological study.
Consciousness is defined as our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment (Koch,
2004). [4] The experience of consciousness is fundamental to human nature. We all know what it
means to be conscious, and we assume (although we can never be sure) that other human beings
experience their consciousness similarly to how we experience ours.
The study of consciousness has long been important to psychologists and plays a role in many
important psychological theories. For instance, Sigmund Freud’s personality theories
differentiated between the unconscious and the conscious aspects of behavior, and present-day
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psychologists distinguish betweenautomatic (unconscious) and controlled (conscious) behaviors
and betweenimplicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) memory (Petty, Wegener, Chaiken,
& Trope, 1999; Shanks, 2005). [5]
Some philosophers and religious practices argue that the mind (or soul) and the body are separate
entities. For instance, the French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) was a proponent
of dualism, the idea that the mind, a nonmaterial entity, is separate from (although connected to)
the physical body. In contrast to the dualists, psychologists believe that consciousness (and thus
the mind) exists in the brain, not separate from it. In fact, psychologists believe that
consciousness is the result of the activity of the many neural connections in the brain, and that
we experience different states of consciousness depending on what our brain is currently doing
(Dennett, 1991; Koch & Greenfield, 2007). [6]
The study of consciousness is also important to the fundamental psychological question
regarding the presence of free will. Although we may understand and believe that some of our
behaviors are caused by forces that are outside our awareness (i.e., unconscious), we
nevertheless believe that we have control over, and are aware that we are engaging in, most of
our behaviors. To discover that we, or even someone else, has engaged in a complex behavior,
such as driving in a car and causing severe harm to others, without being at all conscious of
one’s actions, is so unusual as to be shocking. And yet psychologists are increasingly certain that
a great deal of our behavior is caused by processes of which we are unaware and over which we
have little or no control (Libet, 1999; Wegner, 2003). [7]
Our experience of consciousness is functional because we use it to guide and control our
behavior, and to think logically about problems (DeWall, Baumeister, & Masicampo,
2008). [8] Consciousness allows us to plan activities and to monitor our progress toward the goals
we set for ourselves. And consciousness is fundamental to our sense of morality—we believe
that we have the free will to perform moral actions while avoiding immoral behaviors.
But in some cases consciousness may become aversive, for instance when we become aware that
we are not living up to our own goals or expectations, or when we believe that other people
perceive us negatively. In these cases we may engage in behaviors that help us escape from consciousness, for example through the use of alcohol or other psychoactive drugs (Baumeister,
1998). [9]
Because the brain varies in its current level and type of activity, consciousness is transitory. If we
drink too much coffee or beer, the caffeine or alcohol influences the activity in our brain, and our
consciousness may change. When we are anesthetized before an operation or experience a
concussion after a knock on the head, we may lose consciousness entirely as a result of changes
in brain activity. We also lose consciousness when we sleep, and it is with this altered state of
consciousness that we begin our chapter.
