Posted: March 18th, 2022

language endangermen

Abstract
In a typical academic course on language endangerment, language is presented as an anthropomorphic organism which lives independently of the speakers and is capable of coexisting in its own terms. However, linguists have argued that languages are dependent on their speaker’s communicative behaviors who in return adapt to the changes in their socio-economic ecologies. It is as a consequence of these adaptations that we experience language shift, attrition, endangerment and even death. Mufwene, (2001).
Introduction
Basing our arguments on the opinion of socio-linguists, languages are organic entities which like any other organic organisms, have to go through a predetermined life cycle of birth, infancy, maturation then death. Currently, we are living in a world which has many transformations evident in the radical changes taking place be it in technology, economy and even culture. The huge number of languages which will simply drop from use is one of the striking features of the transformation. The phenomenon of language endangerment and death, factors and conditions which cause them, and the resulting consequences form the matter of this article.
Importance of Language Study
Besides the usual interest to understand the diverse cultures of different people, study of indigenous languages is important in gathering knowledge which is of prime interest to other disciplines like archaeology, anthropology, history and prehistory. Study of languages act as a source of great importance in reconstruction of cultural history for those regions in which there is no existence of written historical accounts. Comparison and reconstruction of a language may provide useful insights into certain aspects of a region’s history and prehistory. For instance, similar linguistic relationships are often discovered amid language and language families which are presently located at very long distances from each other. Findings like such go a great way into identifying geographical origins of various speech communities and to some extent, they help in reconstruction of possible migration routes which once existed. Also, through analysis of traces of language contact, possible through existence of different communities living side by side, one can obtain Historical information.
There are about 6,800 distinct languages currently in the world and various other dialects. This is according to a database made and maintained by Summer Institute of Linguistics based in Dallas. These languages are unevenly distributed. In some areas, you will find many people speaking the same language, hence fewer languages. This is especially in temperate regions. In hot and wet regions, small numbers of people speak the same language, in which case, there are many languages in a region. For instance, about 200 languages only exist in Europe, about 100 in America, 2400 in Africa and 3,200 in Asia and the Pacific out of which, 900 of them are in Papua and New Guinea alone.
Language diversity is considered to an essential tool in human heritage, as each language represents the very unique cultural intelligence of its speakers. Therefore, loss of a language means loss of cultural wisdom of humanity. Though the number of languages existing today might seem to be large, most of them are under duress. In demonstration, the median number of speakers for these languages is 6000. This means that for more than half of the total languages in the world, fewer than 6000 people speak them. Currently, over 400 languages are close to be extinct. This means that only a few elderly speakers are left and there are barely if any children who use the language. Picking randomly as an example is Busuu in Cameron which has only eight speakers left, in the United States, Lipan Apache has only two to three speakers existing and in Australia, there is only one Wadjigu speaker left. Chances of survival for these languages is minimal.
Meaning of Language States
According to the classification by linguists, an endangered language is one whose speakers cease to use it or rarely do. They also fail to pass it from generation to generation and hence, it is spoken by adults only and children no longer speak it. UNESCO (2003). Essentially, an endangered language is one that is at risk of being out of use. In the cases where a language has no existing native speakers, then it is termed as a dead language. Usually, a language is declared dead even before the last of the native speakers dies. On the other hand, a moribund language is one whose usage has reduced so much such that only a few elderly speakers of the language exist and they do not use it as a first language in communication. We can say that a moribund language is effectively dead and hence no longer in use.
The difference between a dead and an extinct language is major. An extinct language means that no more speakers exist, either as a first or second language. Evidence of extinct languages is only found in written texts. On the other hand, a dead language is one that has no native speakers. Crystal (2000). In this case, people can speak it fluently as a second language. A language can also be said to be dead simply because it has evolved. Kanzler (2010). Taking the example of English language, there used to be old English, then middle English and later, early modern English. All these are now dead but traces of their influence can still be felt in the modern English. Vandekerckhove & Britain (2009).
Over 3,000 languages in the world today are in the endangered class. According to experts, by the end of this century, fewer languages will be in use. They however disagree on the numbers, with the pessimistic ones foreseeing an erosion of over 90% of the languages. According to this lot, in some two centuries to come, only about 200 languages will be in existence. The more positive ones however are optimistic that with a lot of effort and care, at least half of the languages will survive the century. Economist Print Edition (2004).
Causes of Language Death
There are various causes for death of minority languages. Amongst them could be natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, droughts and sometimes epidemics, external factors such as religion, military, cultural or educational subjugation (Nettle & Romaine, 2000), internal factors like a negative attitude by a community to its own language which is caused by external pressures, both of which are a barrier to passing of cultural and linguistic traditions between generations.
In situations where different communities live together side by side, this could cause language endangerment. Contact between the two communities involves exchange of not only products but also cultural elements. In most cases where two communities find themselves in this position, there is rarely a chance where the two will enjoy similar prestige. Usually, there will exist a dominant community and an inferior one for various reasons like economic, social-historical, numerical or political abilities of a community. Appel & Muysken (1987). In this case, the community with the inferior status usually become proficient in the language of the dominant community. As a result, they might be inclined to abandon their culture and language in order to accommodate those of the more dominant group. Heller & Duchêne, (2007)
In regions where there are large numbers of languages within a small region, language death becomes a huge possibility. An example is in Europe where there is a replacement of Sorbian with German and Sweden and Finland where the Saami languages are threatened by the respective state languages. This danger is especially looming large since out of the total languages of the world, almost 85% are used in only 22 countries. Some of the countries which host a large number of languages include; Brazil with more than 200 languages, Zaire which too has over 200, Mexico estimated at 250, Cameroon at almost 300, India at almost 400, Nigeria which has more than 500, Indonesia which has around 700 and to top it all up is Papua New Guinea which has almost 900 languages,
The major and most acknowledged threat to language and cause of its death however is, according to Matthias Brenzinger of Dartmouth College New Hampshire, because their speakers abandon them voluntarily. Some languages are dominant and are associated with economic progress and success an example being English. As such, speakers of minority languages are pressured to learn them in order to also progress economically. Most indigenous people in disadvantaged social positions tend to associate this misfortune to their culture. They will therefore abandon and try to be very far away from their cultures and languages in order to avoid discrimination, have a secured livelihood and to have their social mobility enhanced in order to be able to fit in the global market place.
Only a few languages make it to the dominant list, according to the Economist Print Edition (2004). These are the ones that rule the world. For instance, Mandarin Chinese is spoken by almost a sixth of the world as a first language. The rest are Spanish, مساعدة التعيين – خدمة كتابة المقالات من قبل كبار الكتاب العرب, Arabic, English and Hindi. In combination, the top eleven of the worlds dominant languages cover over half the world. According to UNESCO (2003), around 97% of the world currently use only about 4% of the world’s languages. This percentage is made up of the dominant languages. Conversely, the remaining 96% of the world languages are only used by 3% of the world’s population. Meanwhile, speakers of these minority languages are stigmatised as backward, narrow, inferior and an embarrassment. Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Children don’t learn them and fewer and fewer people speak them. After a while, the last speakers of these languages die, taking the languages with them to the grave.
Consequences of Language Endangerment and Death
The study of endangered languages can be looked upon against a basis related to the general value of preserving existing cultural diversity. Each and every culture represents an explanation on the survival of a unique way of life, of solving or facing problems. Loss of cultural diversity therefore means loss of experience, wisdom and knowledge that has shown how useful it is for mankind in general. Languages, apart from being part of cultural heritage of certain people, they form a complete and intricate reflection of it. Death of a language means loosing cultural heritage. The documentation of languages is thus very useful inethnobotany, ethnomedicine, and to assist in the study of ritual and oral cultures. Brenzinger (2006).
Some people claim that trying to save Moribund languages is pointless. Throughout the human history, they claim, languages are born, evolve and die. Death of minority languages is according to them, another natural course. The fact that speakers of minority languages do not make effort to retain and keep them alive means that the languages are not useful. This though has been termed as ‘misguided cultural Darwinism’ by linguists. Until their habitats – through intervention of other humans – changed, these languages completely and perfectly matched their speaker’s way of life. This is closely related to man’s encroachment to their natural environment. In example, it is considered a very worthy endeavor to preserve some rare ecosystem, or species of plants and other organisms. In the same manner, preservation of languages means safeguarding our diversity and should be taken very seriously. A widespread loss of languages can only be equated to an ecological disaster.
This comparison though cannot be pushed further. Usually, the regions in the world with a huge variety of languages also happen to be home to a huge variety of species. According to William Sutherland (2003), there is an increase in language density with low latitude together with a forest and mountain area which is proportionally large. This applies to the birds too. You will find that regions which have many endangered languages also have many endangered birds. But in difference, regions with more numbers of endangered animal species have high human density while those with high numbers of endangered languages do not. In conclusion, Sutherland finds out that causes for risk of extinction differ between biological and cultural diversity.
Seemingly, death and extinction of languages is not a threat to the survival of the human race. All the same, language death is not unimportant. UNESCO (2003). One of the major consequences of language death is the loss of unique cultural, ecological and historical knowledge which cannot be recovered. A language is a unique way of expressing and telling of the experience of humans in the world. This makes each language very unique. Knowledge of a single language can provide the answers to the essential questions of the future. With every death of a language, we loose evidence which could help in explaining the patterns which form up the structure and function of human language, prehistory and maintenance of the diverse ecosystems of the world.
Language is a critical element in group identity and self esteem. In the case of a language death, speakers of that language can take it as a loss of their original ethnicity and cultural identity. Bradley & Bradley (2002). Looking at it from the perspective of Kenneth Hale – a linguistics teacher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) – loss of a language means loss of intellectual wealth, a culture and a work of art. Its like bombing a museum full of treasures.
The hypothesis developed in the 1930’s by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf insinuated that different languages reflect different ways through which humans view the world. The first of the two part hypothesis stated that different languages symbolize different views of the world while the second stated that due to this, speakers of different languages are inclined to different ways of thinking. Later on though, Noam Chomsky came up with a theory that slightly varies with the latter. It states that though superficially different, languages still share common underlying structures. Whichever theorist one wishes to follow, it is clear that death of a language is not a matter to be taken lightly.
Universally, it is agreed that the only way to save an endangered language is to have the speakers become bi or multilingual. That way, the dominant language can be used for business and official purposes while their first language can be used with friends and family. While this might seem to be hard for some people, bi or multilingualism has been the natural thing for majority of the people most of the time. It is increasingly easy for children to pick and retain different languages if exposed to them early. People who are conversant with more than one language are actually known – with evidence- to be more flexible mentally and more creative as compared to their one language counterparts.
The Arapaho Language
The Arapaho language is among the members of the Algonquian family of languages. Over the centuries, this language has changed rapidly in what is known as the Arapaho language evolution, and does not closely resemble other languages of this family. Currently, it is spoken in two different but very closely related dialects. Cowell & Moss (2008). It is approximated that about 250 people only fluently speak Northern Arapaho. They are all in their late 50’s or more and are located in Wyoming. A number of people in their 30’s and older have different competence in this language, some of them are near-fluent understanders while a few have limited ability to speak it. On the other hand, Southern Arapaho is fluently spoken by only a handful of elderly people, mostly in their 80’s or older and are based in Western Oklahoma. As a result, the Arapaho language is endangered and unnecessary steps are taken, it is at a risk of becoming extinct.
Together with their enemies, the Eastern Shoshone, the Northern Arapaho share the isolated Wind River Reservation with the main reservation settlements of Arapahoe, St. Stephens, Ethete and Ft. Washakie being occupied by few non-Indians. Cowell & Moss (2008). As a result, there was very little intermingling and intermarriages between the three tribes. This saw the Nothern Arapahos remain a tight cultural and linguistic group. This though was until the World War II which saw to a very rapid and major cultural change where children were now raised speaking English at the expense of Arapaho. That explains the reason why, the youngest Arapaho speakers alive today were those born in the 1940’s. Though Arapaho speakers, in an interesting twist continued to use the language amongst themselves, and use English with their children. In effect, a rich and environment of the Arapaho language persisted in the reservation well into the 1970’s and 1980’s. To this day, there exists native speakers of Arapaho as a primary language, even though they are quite elderly. With necessary steps, Arapaho language can be revived.
The Southern Arapaho on their side, shared their reservation with Southern Cheyenne who happened to be their traditional friends. In the early 20th century though, their reservation was effectively dissolved by allotment which led to the extensive intermingling and intermarriages between the two communities and a majority non-indian population. This saw an erosion to the language and culture of Southern Arapaho. Even the few existing speakers of this language are a minority among the generation born in 1920’s who got to using the language because they were brought up by their non English speaking grand parents. Majority of the Southern Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne are not able to identify with their tribes anymore.
The Arapaho language does follow the Campell and Muntzel’s taxonomy of language death which is concerned with structural changes in obsolescing languages which can be attributed to process of language death. Dorian (1989). This is drawn from the major structural changes that occurred during the Arapaho language evolution. Due to this evolution, the Arapaho language is very different today as compared to its original form used centuries ago. Due to these changes, it is no longer similar to other languages in the Algonquian family of languages. Some of the dissimilarities include:
Fly (Insect) Sakimeewa in Proto-Algonquian
Noubee in Arapaho
Bear Malkwa in Proto-Algonquian
Wox in Arapaho

References
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic genocide in education –or worldwide diversity and human rights Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
The Economist Print Edition (2004). Endangered Languages: Babel runs backwards. Extracted from http://clta-gny.org/article/endangered_language.html
Grenoble, L. A.,and Whaley, L. (2006). Saving languages: An introduction to language revitalization. New York: Cambridge University Press.
UNESCO, (2003). Language Vitality and Endangerment. Extracted from http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/35646/12007687933Language_Vitality_and_Endangerment.pdf/Language%2BVitality%2Band%2BEndangerment.pdf
Appel, R. and Muysken, P. (1987). Language Contact and Bilingualism. London: Edward Arnold.
Vandekerckhove, R. and Britain, D. (2009). Dialects in western Europe: a balanced picture of language death, innovation, and change. International Journal of the Sociology of Language. Special Issue, 196/197 Extracted from https://monkessays.com/write-my-essay/clips.ua.ac.be/sites/default/files/ijsl_vandekerckhove_and_britain_-_intro.pdf
Cunningham, D. Ingram, D.E. and Sumbuk, K. (2006). Language diversity in the Pacific: endangerment and survival. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Mufwene, S. S. (2002). Colonisation, Globalisation and the Future of Languages in the Twenty-first Century. USA: University of Chicago. Extracted from http://humanities.uchicago.edu/faculty/mufwene/vl4n2COLONIZATION-GLOBALIZATION.pdf
Nettle, D. and Romaine, S. (2000). Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the Worlds Languages. USA: Oxford University Press
Gal, S. (1979). Language shift – social determinants of linguistic change in bilingual Austria. New York: Academic Press.
Bashirnezhad, H. Linguists and Anthropology: How and Why Languages Die. Extracted from http://bashirnezhad.blogfa.com/8901.aspx
Bradley, D. and Bradley, M. (2002). Language Endangerment and Language Maintenance. London: RoutledgeCurzon
Fishman, J.A. (2001). Can threatened languages be saved Clevedon: Multilingual Matters
Crystal, D. (2000). Language Death. UK: Cambridge University Press
Cowell, A. and Moss, A. (2008). The Arapaho Language. USA: University Press of Colorado.
Dorian, N. C. (1989). Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language Contraction and Death. NY: Cambridge University Press
Bourhis, R.Y. (2001). Reversing the Language Shift in Quebec. In Fishman (ed.)
University of Colorado Articles. The Arapaho Language. Extracted from https://monkessays.com/write-my-essay/colorado.edu/csilw/arapahoproject/language/index.htm
Mufwene, S.S. (2001). The Ecology Of Language Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Heller, M. and Duchêne, A. (2007). Discourses of Endangerment: Interest and Ideology in the Defense of Languages. London: Continuum.
Grenoble, L. and Whaley, L. (1998). Endangered languages: language loss and community response. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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