Posted: January 17th, 2023
THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION ON THE COASTAL ZONE OF GHANAAn Ecosystem Services Approach
THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION ON THE COASTAL ZONE OF GHANA An Ecosystem Services Approach
FOREWORD
This study examines and analyzes the potential impact of oil and gas exploration in Ghana
Production on its coastal ecosystems and coastal communities. It brings both to bear
Environmental impacts and other related socio-economic consequences for coastal residents.
It also analyzes the ability of national legislation to deal with the effects of oil and gas
Exploration. My interest in environmental issues started when I was young when I became curious
about the consequences of mining pollution in my hometown Obuasi. Over the years, this city has
Ghana was the second highest gold producing country in Africa and is still the country today
only second to South Africa on the continent. There were no environmental problems in the late 1970s
Ghana’s primary agenda. As such, many environmental problems were taken for granted and so too
The situation led to many negative environmental impacts for local communities. in the
Obuasi, the company’s long chimneys put huge amounts of aerosols in the chimney every day
The atmosphere. This situation had led to a persistent rain shower over the city.
In the meantime, many residents had to rely on this water source to do their housework and even
to drink. I remember that I had to fetch rainwater several times to realize large amounts
Amounts of blackish substances settle under the drip pan. The biggest influence was
probably felt by the communities that were closed in front of the fireplaces or that were the subject of an ongoing struggle
with the smoke due to the atmospheric wind direction. With time most of these residents
Communities developed strange skin tones with strange patterns and spots. But it wasn’t just that
the end of their misfortune. Acidification as a result of mining activities destroyed many fertile ones
and arable land thus denies them their daily livelihood.
It became increasingly clear that the environmental situation in these and other mining towns had deteriorated
improve. However, the opportunity to study environmental sciences was limited in Ghana. So on
After completing my Bsc agricultural program, I took the opportunity to do the MSc in Berlin
Environmental science program at Wageningen University. This time I decided to focus on something new
Projects because the saying goes: “Prevention is better than cure”. Ghana is currently less
Experience in dealing with the effects of oil and gas development and with this new oil and gas
Discovery The country faces many challenges. If appropriate measures are not taken by this era
Environmental awareness, then the posterity of this current generation must never forgive. Therefore
That is why I chose this study.
I have to admit that this study would not have been possible without the support of many people
their contributions have brought me so far. My greatest appreciation goes to the Dutch
Government for granting the NUFFIC scholarship to study in the Netherlands. My next one
The recognition goes to my thesis supervisor, Lars Hein, from Environmental Systems Analysis
Wageningen University group for its constructive criticism and careful monitoring
tedious work. I would also like to thank Mr. Andre van Amstel, my student advisor, for being here
when it is most needed. Also my appreciation for the entire staff of the environmental system
Analysis group to make this place a home for me. Many thanks to Prosper Antwi
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Boasiako for obtaining some relevant documents from the Environmental Protection Agency of
Ghana. Finally, my thanks go to my family Florence, Catherine and Gordon for their support
Support and encouragement during this lonely period.
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Table of Contents
SUMMARY …………………………………………. ………………………………………….. …………………………… 7
1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………….. . …………………………………………. . ………………. 10
1.1 Background ………………………………………… ………………………………………….. ………………….. 10
1.1.1 The setting ……………………………………… ………………………………………….. ………………… 10
2. TARGET AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS …………………………………….. …………………….. 15
3. METHODOLOGY ……………………………………….. ………………………………………….. ……………… 17
3.1 General approach and scope ……………………………………… ….. 17
3.2 The study area ……………………………………….. … ………………… 18
3.3 Methods ………………………………………… ………………………………………….. ……………………….. 19
4. RESULTS ………………………………… …….. …………………………………… …….. …………………… 22
4.1 Effects of oil and gas exploration and production on Ghana’s coastal zone 22
4.1.1 Description of oil and gas exploration and production 22
4.1.2 First order of impact ………………………………… …. ………………………………………. 24
4.1.3 Second impact order ………………………………… …… …………………………………….. … 28
4.1.4 Third impact order ………………………………… …… …………………………………….. …… 29
4.1.5 The ecology on land at Cape Three Point ………………………………. .. ………………… 32
4.2 Ghana’s legislative powers to address the environmental and socio-economic impacts of
Oil and gas exploration ……………………………….. …….. …………………………………… …….. …… 33
4.2.1 Overview of relevant national laws and guidelines ……………………………….. .. …… 33
4.2.2 Relevant international environmental conventions and conventions 37
4.3 Analysis of the possible effects on the coastal ecosystem and the coastal inhabitants
Zone of Ghana ……………………………………….. ………………………………………….. ……………………… 39
4.3.1 Effects on the ecosystem and biodiversity …………………………. 40
4.3.2 Socio-economic effects of the anniversary field project ……………………………….. 49
4.4 Analysis of Ghana’s ability to deal with the threats to the oil and gas industry …………………………….. ………………………………………….. ………………………………………….. ………………………………………….. ………………………………………….. …….
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4.4.1 Ghana’s environmental standards and guidelines 52
4.4.2 Law enforcement ………………………………………. ………………………………………….. ……… 53
4.4.3 Monitoring ………………………………………. ………………………………………….. ………………. 54
4.5 Recommendations to minimize the impact of oil and gas exploration in Ghana
4.5.1 Short-term measures ……………………………………… ….. ……. 55
4.5.2 Long-term measures ……………………………………. … ……………………………………….. … ….. 56
4.5.3 A summary of the effects and recommendations ……………….. 57
5. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ………………………………… 61
5.1 Uncertainties ………………………………………… .. ………………………………………… .. …………………. 61
5.1.1 Dealing with uncertainties …………………………………….. … 61
5.2 Main conclusion ………………………………………… ………………………………………….. …………… 61
5.3 Recommendations ………………………………………… …. ………………………………………. …. …………. 64
5.3.1 Recommendations to minimize the impact of offshore oil and gas exploration in Ghana 64
5.3.2 Recommendations for further studies ……………………………………. …………………………. 64
8.REFERENCES ……………………………………. …. ………………………………………. …. ………………. 66
ATTACHMENTS ……………………………………… …. ………………………………………. …. ………………….. 73
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SUMMARY
In 2007, Ghana discovered oil in commercial quantities on the south coast of the Gulf of Guinea.
It is generally believed that such a discovery would generate the revenue required to turn this around
the nation’s economic fate. But such explorations are always associated with massive
Environmental and socio-economic problems that could be even more expensive. Unfortunately in
In Ghana’s situation, the economic benefits seem to take precedence over environmental protection
socio-economic considerations. Ghana is now in such an industry and as inexperienced
they lack the ability to effectively manage the associated effects. It is worrying that the
The region in which the project is currently taking place is considered the warehouse of Ghana
Biodiversity. In addition, the region has become an important producer of Ghana’s local food.
Cash crops and also houses a number of rich natural ecosystems. Given that, it will be more
necessary to have the impact of oil and gas activities on these resources and coastal residents
be evaluated to make appropriate recommendations to deal with these effects.
The aim of this study is to analyze the potential effects of oil and gas exploration
on the coast of Ghana and recommendations for the management of the
associated ecological and socio-economic impacts.
The study is based on literature studies with secondary data from the fields of environment,
ecological and social sciences. Interviews were conducted among experts and stakeholders
Project for your knowledge and opinion. The effects are divided into first and second order
order and third order impact. The analyzes follow the guidelines of The
International Association for Environmental Protection in the Petroleum Industry (IPIECA) and
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). In addition, three main aspects of Ghanaian legislation
to be analyzed. These are (1) the adequacy of emission standards in Ghana (2) their applicability
Emission standards for the oil and gas industry and (3) law enforcement.
There are different types of pollutants or pollution during the prospection phase, the exploration
and the exploitation phase. For example the outflows of drilling fluids and cuttings
enormous consequences for coastal ecosystems and biodiversity. However, the severity is from
Pollutants depend on a number of factors, the exploration phase and / or
Production, the size of the project and the sensitivity of the recipient’s ecosystems and
Biodiversity. Noise is considered a concern because the waters of Cape Three Point are part of the
Migration route for many whales. Noise can trigger a route detour or a full detour
Avoid the area and as the presence of the whales could offer an opportunity
Tourism development has an economic impact. There are also socio-economic challenges
This could trigger conflicts between the oil and gas companies and local interest groups. This
This includes denying local fishermen access to the rig and other uses. Likewise,
There may be a sudden population increase in the region, which can lead to it
Prevalence of diseases, drug addiction and social tensions (e.g. pressure on schools, hospitals)
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and other leisure facilities). Finally, the natural vegetation is converted into construction
Locations that provide enough facilities to meet the needs of the growing local population.
This thesis shows that despite the existence of Ghana, there are currently no air emission standards
Guidelines for ambient air quality and waste water discharge. The environmental guidelines do not specify
At what distance, based on the emission point, measurements are to be made as environmental conditions. Likewise,
The guidelines make no distinction between on-site and off-site standards. Hence the guidelines
Inadequate to handle the pressure of oil and gas development. In addition, the
Monitoring and enforcement of environmental laws in Ghana have insufficient resources.
Capacities and lack of political will. This situation has led to implementation gaps
Environmental impact assessments, which are mostly carried out in the middle of the life cycle
most projects.
Short-term and long-term recommendations are given. The short-term measures include the
Detailed basic data on the availability of wild animals in the project area must be created. Such
Information could help with impact assessments and cost-benefit analyzes. The data could also help
in future studies. In order to assess the actual impact on the fishing industry, it is also necessary
Monitor the reduction in fishing volume before, during and after a project. All the
Environmental data should be published. This should be legally binding for all oil and gas
Explore companies. In order to minimize noise, flight altitudes should be limited
for helicopters especially above the reserved areas and other estuaries.
For long-term measures, it is recommended that the various environments be non-governmental
Organizations (eNGOs) in Ghana are empowered to conduct their own on-site research.
This will help investigate any misdeeds committed by oil and gas companies and EPA officials.
The traditional councils in the affected areas should also be part of the surveillance and
Reporting on the effectiveness of environmental management plans. In addition, the
The governments of the West African marine and coastal ecoregion could adopt the concept of a
Comprehensive regional offshore oil production agreement. This convention should reflect
the specific needs of the region and the vulnerability of the local ecosystem. Involving a large
A number of stakeholders, for example in citizens’ councils, will be crucial for the establishment of an adequate system
regional standards. To minimize the impact of job loss and poverty,
Oil and gas companies have to make social commitments due to reduced fishing activity
Responsibility agreements with their catchment areas. This can include a facility
internal aquaculture and other income-generating activities to employ these people. The
The establishment of a citizens’ council corresponds to an international recommendation that
Governments and oil industries actively involve key stakeholders to deal with complex problems
Environmental issues. Stakeholders can include fishermen, tourism companies, scientists and
Conservationists. Such a practice in Ghana can avoid many mistakes that have been made in the past
Past especially in most oil-rich African countries. Finally, as a means to avoid long term
cross-border pollution problems with neighboring countries there is a need to
Process for creating models for the deposition of pollutants. This is important in view of the upswing
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Oil and gas exploration activities in the Gulf of Guinea. There is currently ongoing oil and oil
Gas exploration activities on the coast of Cote Dívoire, Nigeria, Ghana, Gabon and Angola. This
Increased exploration could trigger a massive air pollution problem in the region.
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.1.1 The setting
The exploration and production of oil and gas is associated with many ecological and socio-
economic impact (Baptiste and Nordenstam, 2009). Even so, many nations across the globe
The world would still appreciate discovering oil and gas in their territories. This is due to the fact
that the availability of such natural resources is seen as a point of economic change and
in fact, the development ability of such nations can determine. With the world population
an estimated 6 billion to around 9 billion in 2050 (average population)
Scenario; UN, 2003), it is logical that the energy level of the world increases to meet the requirements of or
be reliable at least in the supply. A report by the Energy Information Administration (UVP, 2009)
estimates from their reference scenario that the current laws and guidelines of the world can still be expected
unchanged for the projection period, “the worldwide marketed energy consumption is forecast
Growth of 44 percent in the period 2006 to 2030. The total global energy consumption increases from 472
Trillion British Thermal Units (Btu) in 2006 to 552 trillion Btu in 2015 and then to 678
Billiards BTU in 2030 ‘. The EIA report shows that energy demand is growing fastest
is expected to come from countries outside the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (non-OECD countries). Liquid fuels and other petroleum are also expected
remain the dominant energy in the world.
Nations have relied on an uninterrupted supply of oil and gas for years to meet their needs
Energy requirements and raw materials are still of crucial importance, especially for industrial growth.
Unfortunately, despite their importance, not all nations are abundant in these products
the dependence on external sources. In the meantime, the sources of supply have become significant
volatile in time, partly due to the special properties of the products; Non-renewability and
also political instability at most production sites. Such a situation threatens
Guarantee of constant supply in the balance. As a result, the trend has led many states to look for something
alternative means of ensuring energy security. Likewise, companies in the oil and gas industry
responded to the challenge by revising their operational instructions. In most cases it has attention
moved to explore the unexplored and emerging countries where there are relatively a
congenial political atmosphere to improve operations. For most developing countries where oil
Natural gas exploration and production activities are ongoing, desperate for
Economic success is usually the driving force behind such operations. The problem here is that
Most of these countries are inexperienced in the oil and gas industry and have usually made their decisions
are mainly based on economic transformations with little consideration of environmental and environmental aspects
social implications.
Ghana, a West African country, is one of the few African nations to have recently discovered oil
and natural gas in commercial quantities. So far, the country has to rely on external sources
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Oil and gas supply to meet domestic energy needs. Energy situation in the
The country is currently unreliable due to the high level of investment in oil imports
Country can hardly afford it. The country’s oil import bill for the first quarter of 2008 and 2009
was $ 643.86 million and $ 241.84 million, respectively (Bank of Ghana, 2009).
Given the huge spending on oil imports, the discovery of oil and gas is seen as a turn
point to economic prosperity. However, a lot is already at stake on political and economic platforms
and such interest among these actors is likely to prioritize economic considerations
about ecological and socio-cultural aspects. According to De Groot (2006: 182) for evaluation
Land use conflict in the Dnestr delta, Ukraine, “economic (especially monetary) information plays a role
important role and tends to dominate decision making at the expense of ecological and socio-ecological
cultural values ”. The long-term consequences of chronic environmental disturbances are frequent
are valued much less easily, so they are usually not involved in decision making (Carney,
1987).
A major challenge in the exploration and production of oil and gas is the ecological importance of
Long-term chronic exposure to many chemical-related low releases
Activities related to hydrocarbon production are largely unknown (NRC 1985; Boesch et al. 1987; Capuzzo
1987). This may be due to the fact that these low-level chemicals do not immediately induce
Environmental disasters on the scale of oil pollution. It is now obvious that a
A longer accumulation can lead to a significant ecological change in the various scales (Gray et al.
1990; Lissner et al. 1991; Osenberg et al. 1992; Olsgard and Gray 1995). Given that, it is
it is striking that the immediate and long-term environmental impacts are neglected
Ghana’s oil and gas exploration and production activities will adversely affect the environment
surrounding biodiversity and ecosystem. Previous studies have shown that in projects where
Environmental and management impacts are ignored or poorly considered, which is expected
In the long run, economic gains become unproductive or counterproductive, and sometimes
elusive (Balmford et al., 2002; Barbier and Thompson, 1998).
In 2007, Tullow Oil, a British company, was involved in oil production in Ghana
Enter the initial amount of oil in one of the approved fields in deep water (about 600 million barrels)
(Mining Exploration News, 2007). The company estimates the reserves in its fields at 1.8
Billion barrels (GBN, 2009). Many explorations are currently taking place in different locations
across the country but so far the Western Cape Three Points, the shallow water Tano and that
Deep water areas have shown greater potential for commercial production that is expected
start in 2010. Obviously, it is necessary to examine and analyze the potential impact of this
Exploration and production activities are becoming indispensable. Possible effects usually refer to
the likely positive and negative effects on the quality and quantity of biotics and abiotics
Factors of the physical environment; This includes the ecosystem and biodiversity. For
This study focuses on the negative effects of oil and gas exploration and production
Coastal ecosystem activities and scope are expanded to include relevant socio-economic aspects
and cultural aspects of coastal society. The term coastal zone is used as defined in
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Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: The interface between sea and land that extends to the sea
about in the middle of the continental shelf and inland to include all areas heavily affected by
the proximity to the sea. The limit values are between 50 meters below the mean
Sea level and 50 meters above the flood level from the shore. It includes coral reefs, tides
Zones, estuaries, coastal aquaculture and seaweed communities (Millennium ecosystem
Assessment, 2003: 54).
It is worth noting that some studies on the environmental impact of have already been carried out
Offshore oil and gas exploration. For example, Baptiste and Nordenstam (2009) in their study on
The Caribbean coast noted that oil and gas development is socio-ecological
Consequences for the coastal ecosystems. According to Kotchen and Burger (2007) there is potential
The environmental impact of oil exploration can be mainly due to two sources:
Part of the seismic analysis and infrastructure for oil extraction and transportation. Ghisel
noted that fossil fuel production from offshore plants has increased dramatically in the past 50 years
Years that become the most exploitative activity that depletes water resources
Ecosystem. The corresponding growth of offshore platforms from such exploration and
Production activities prompted Terlizzi A. et al. (2008), the Effects of Gas Platforms on Software
Basic macro-fauna assemblages in the North Ionian Sea, showing that idiosyncratic patterns
the change in assembly with increasing distance from the platforms. As Kingston (1987)
The environmental impact assessments of the effects of offshore platforms were largely based on
Soft-bottom macro-fauna assemblages. In the meantime, “Analyze compromises between different properties
Use options and the associated ecological, economic and socio-cultural values, analytical evaluation
Procedures must be combined with techniques of stakeholder participation (De Groot, 2006: 182).
Unfortunately, the involvement of interest groups has often been marginalized and in Africa, where the
Oil drilling activities are booming, decisions are often made without exhausting effort
Include input or views from those whose livelihood is likely to be affected by oil and the environment. Englisch: eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUri…0025: DE: HTML
Gas activities. In most cases, this development has led to conflicts and political instability
especially in developing countries. For example, a commercial mining operation in northern Tanzania
There was an operation in which local and artisanal miners were not involved in planning and sharing the benefits
with years of conflict with neighboring miners and high recurring security costs (Mwalyosi
and Hughes, 1998). Taking into account the associated environmental impacts of oil and gas
Exploration, it is obvious that functioning environmental regulation is crucial to control or
Minimize the environmental impact.
problem
Oil and gas are extracted in the western region of Ghana. The region is
Especially known as the region with the most natural resources in the country. The region
is endowed with natural vegetation that is rich in biodiversity. It is the greatest
Producer of cocoa, rubber, coconut and a major producer of oil palm in the country. minerals
including gold, bauxite, iron, diamonds and manganese are either mined or are
potentially exploitable. The region falls under the protected area of the high forest zone in Ghana
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The Ankassa and Nini Suhien National Parks are 130 km west of Takoradi and closer to
La Cote Dévoire border. Evergreen elephants, Diana monkeys and bongo live here
than the legendary bamboo roof. This is an area designated as an international biosphere reserve
(Government of Ghana, 2009). Given the importance of the region, this is feared
Uncontrolled oil and gas exploration and the related activities could have a negative impact on the environment
the surrounding terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem and biodiversity. Already NGOs and the
The public expressed concern about the lack of social and environmental impact assessment
the beginning of the project. In addition, some fishermen have also expressed their opinions
Dissatisfaction that they were denied access to the project area and that the
Drilling companies to involve in discussions before starting work (GBC, 2008). Given that
Ghana has limited experience in dealing with oil resources. Institutions are not well established
Manage the associated environmental impact effectively. Meanwhile, it is obvious that such
The project is associated with an enormous environmental impact, which could cost the country if it is not managed well
more than the advantages derived from it. In extreme situations with unsuitable environmental influences
Conflict assessment and management can be inevitable. Already Ghana’s gold mining
Industries, especially those in Obuasi and Tarkwa (also in the western region), are witnesses of a
prolonged conflict with surrounding communities. Most of these conflicts are
attributed to the fact that the environment is being destroyed while taking advantage of these mines
not fairly distributed. This situation has led to some young people coming from this mining industry
Congregations that use “Galamsey” (illegal mining) operations that sometimes open
the mine areas. With such problems, it becomes increasingly important for the oil
and the gas industry to do the right thing from the start to avoid or at least minimize it
future disasters.
The structure of this dissertation is as follows: Chapter 2 provides the goal to accomplish this
study and is followed by research questions that need to be answered in order to achieve the goal. ON
It explains in detail why each research question formulated is relevant to the study
as well as the possible problems to consider for each question.
Chapter 3 describes the general approach, the scope, the study area and the methodology. The
The approach is based on ecosystem services: provision, regulation and cultural services. What
The study covers and covers are discussed in scope and there is an argument for
Taking into account biodiversity as part of the ecosystem. Explicit method to answer every search
Question is discussed in detail and it contains an explanation of why the three ecosystems
The service approach is preferred over the four approaches proposed in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessments.
Chapter 4 presents and analyzes the results of the study. The chapter begins with a
Overview of oil and gas exploration and production activities. The effects are then categorized
in: first order, second order and third order; and exploration activities are at every stage
demonstrated. The current legal framework in Ghana to deal with the effects is being reviewed.
Two analyzes are carried out here: (a) how the pollutants / pressures associated with each order affect
on coastal ecosystems and local communities; and (b) like Ghana’s legislation,
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Environmental standards and guidelines are able to cope with the effects. The chapter ends with
Short- and long-term recommendations to contain the effects.
Chapter 5 discusses uncertainties and how to deal with them. The head too
Conclusions from this study are presented. Finally, are recommendations for further studies
made to address relevant issues identified in this study.
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2. TARGET AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The aim of this study is therefore to analyze the possible environmental impact of the oil
and gas exploration and production on the coastal ecosystem and biodiversity of Ghana
Make recommendations to deal with the situation right from the start and avoid future prospects
Consequences.
Goal : The specific goal of this research is:
Analysis of the potential impact of oil and gas exploration and production on the coastal areas of
Ghana and recommendations for the management of related environmental and
economic impact ”.
To achieve the above goal, the following research questions arise
formulated.
Research questions:
1. What is the potential impact of coastal oil and gas exploration and production?
Ecosystem and people in the Ghanaian coastal zone?
This work begins with the investigation and analysis of potential ecological and social problems
Effects of oil and gas exploration are likely. According to the E & P
Forum / UNEP Technical Report (1997) The potential impact may depend on many others
These include: the phase of the process, the size and complexity of the project, the
Type and sensitivity of the environment, the effectiveness of planning and
Mitigation techniques. Such effects can be atmospheric, aquatic, terrestrial, human, socio-
economic and cultural impact. This is because of the time and presence of substances
This work categorizes the different possible environmental impacts in the order first (primary) and second
(secondary) and third (accumulated) effects. Critical issues when analyzing the effects of offshore oil
and gas exploration border coastal ecosystem protection, sustainability and services
(Usage) and the geographic scale in which these effects occur. The services of the coast
Like any other ecosystem, the ecosystem is supplied at different spatial and temporal conditions
Standards that have a strong impact on the value that the various interest groups attach to the services
(Hein et al., 2006; Tacconi, 2000; Turner et al., 2000, 2003; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,
2003). This thesis expresses the relationship between the magnitudes of Ghana’s oil and gas impacts.
Coastal ecosystem services and socio-economic systems.
2. To what extent is Ghanaian legislation able to protect the environment and the environment?
economic impact of offshore oil and gas exploration?
After analyzing the potential effects of oil and gas exploration in Ghana, the effects of oil and gas exploration need to be tested
The potency and ability of legislative measures to deal with these effects are becoming important. On
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An appropriate legal framework provides information to both the host country and the international oil company
Investors have a clear legal and contractual context in which to negotiate a mutually beneficial one
Exploration and production agreements to develop the host country’s oil resources
(Onorato, 1995). A prominent topic here is what constitutes the development of a country
Petroleum resources. The world has been alarmed since the Brundtland report was published in 1987
on the fact that justice, economic growth and environmental protection are at the same time
possible and that each country is able to realize its full economic potential
At the same time, the resource base was expanded (WCED, 1987). In this case, the old perception of
Development from a mere transformation into a huge oil industry is gradually being replaced by a new one
View of the compatibility of economy and environment. Despite the takeover of Brundtland
The concept of sustainable development in most industrialized countries is not complete
established and / or implemented in the policies of most developing countries to which Ghana belongs
included. This dissertation examines Ghana’s current laws and policies, including
Institution to minimize the negative impact of oil and gas exploration.
3. What recommendations can help to reduce the associated ecological and socio-
economic impact of oil and gas exploration in Ghana?
It is not enough to identify the likely dangers of oil and gas exploration and production in Ghana
without recommending measures to combat or at least minimize these dangers.
Recommendations become even more important given the fact that Ghana is not doing well
Experience in such an industry; Institutions and laws are not fully established or
formulated to deal with the environmental hazards associated with such an industry. This thesis
gives explicit recommendations based on the results as well as lessons from similar studies
elsewhere.
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3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 General approach and scope
This study is based on the ecosystem services approach. Assessing the Millennium Ecosystem
(2003) defines ecosystem services as the benefit that humans derive from ecosystems. This
Provision of food and water; Regulatory services such as flooding and
Disease control; cultural services such as spiritual, recreational and cultural services; and
Supporting services such as the nutrient cycle that maintain living conditions on Earth. The
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines the ecosystem approach as a strategy for the integrated
Management of land, water and living resources that promote protection and sustainable use
a just way. The approach recognizes that people with their cultural diversity are human
integral part of many ecosystems (UNEP / CBD 2000). Based on the two above
By definition, I define the ecosystem services approach as a strategy to reap the benefits
conserved by ecosystems to promote the sustainable management of ecosystem resources in a country
integrated way; This may inevitably involve the integration of ecosystem services
To make decisions. Conceptually, the ecosystem service approach does not differ from that
Ecosystem approach as described in the Convention on Biological Diversity. It’s just a question of
Terminologies. However, there seems to be a big difference in scope and scope
Definitions. For example, the concept of the ecosystem approach as described by the CBD goes a
Going further to ensure a fair sharing of the benefits of the ecosystem across society. Actually it is
It is almost impossible to apply the ecosystem approach without referring to the benefits (services).
derived from the ecosystems. In this respect, the ecosystem services form a basis for the
Ecosystem approach. In this thesis I will identify the various advantages that come from the coast
Ecosystems, and then specifically use the concept of ecosystem services to analyze social ones
Dependency and impact of changes in these ecosystems.
Important concepts of the approach to ecosystem services are conservation and sustainability.
These concepts touch on the environmental and social problems that oil and oil companies face
Gas exploration and production industries at local and global levels. Under these
The challenges include: biodiversity and habitat protection, air pollution, marine and fresh water
Discharges, oil pollution, soil and groundwater pollution, socio-economic and cultural impacts
Impacts etc. On this basis, it can be said that the ecosystem service approach a
valuable framework for the analysis and processing of the relationships between society and the EU
Surroundings. In a way, this corresponds to the concept of sustainable development, as stated in
the Bruntland report (WCED, 1987), which represents a new trend in today’s local and global world
industrial developments.
In this study, biodiversity is considered an integral part of the ecosystem. The meeting on
Biodiversity defines biodiversity as the variability between living organisms from all sources
These include terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems as well as ecological ones
Complexes to which they belong; This includes biodiversity, biodiversity and biodiversity
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Ecosystems ”. The ecosystem is also defined as a dynamic complex of plants, animals and microorganisms.
Organism communities and their non-living environment interact as a functional unit
1992: CBD Article2). While diversity is a structural feature of ecosystems, the variability between ecosystems is different
Ecosystems are an element of biodiversity.
3.2 The study area
The main area for oil and gas exploration and production is located off the west coast
Region of Ghana and borders the coast of La Cote d’Ivoire. The western region of Ghana
covers an area of approximately 2,391 square kilometers, which corresponds to approximately 10% of Ghana’s area
Total land area and lies in the equatorial climate zone, which is characterized by temperate
Temperatures with an average annual precipitation of approx.1,600 mm (ModernGhana, 2009). The
Jubilee field, whose name commemorated by the Ghanaian government
Ghana’s golden anniversary in 2007 is the main line of business. It’s in
the Jubilee Unit Area and about 60 km from the nearest coast of Ghana. Under the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), signed by Ghana,
Ghana claims rights within 12 nautical miles of territorial waters and an exclusivity of 200 nautical miles
Economic zone (EEZ). The anniversary field is actually outside of Ghana’s territorial waters, however
within the 200nm Exclusive Economic Zone. The Jubilee Unit Area comprises part of the deep water
Three-point license areas for Tano and Western Cape. It is located on the continental shelf off Ghana in
Water depths between 1,100 and 1,700 m and covers an area of approx. 110 km
2
, The
The continental shelf has a generally regular bathymetry with isobades running parallel to the coast. It
has its narrowest (20 km wide) before Cape St Paul in the east and the widest (90 km) between
Takoradi and Cape Coast in the west. The shelf drops sharply at a depth of around 75 m
Contour. On the continental shelf, seabed sediments range from coarse sand on the inner shelf to
fine sand and dark gray mud on the outer shelf. Sediments on the shelf and in the upper mainland
Slopes mainly result from erosion of rocks from the countryside with less iron
Silicate sediments and biogenic carbonate from mussel shells. The seabed in the jubilee field
consists of soft to firm clay and silt, which form a generally smooth sea floor that slopes towards the sea
Southwest. The Jubilee Unit Area is crossed by three submarine channels
localized drain points from the continental shelf. All three channels have an active center
Gulley that meanders in every channel. The following figure shows the locations of
Anniversary field and anniversary area.
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3.3 methods
Basically, this study is based on a literature search with secondary data from the area
Environmental, environmental and social sciences. Interviews were carried out among experts and the
Project actors for their knowledge and opinion. The methodology is specific to
Each research question and the details are as follows:
Figure 1: Ghana’s offshore oil and gas exploration fields. (Credit: Tullow Oil)
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1. How can the potential impact of oil and gas exploration on the coastal ecosystem and
People living in the Ghanaian coastal zone are being analyzed?
The International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA) has one
Guide to an Ecosystem Approach (EA) to Conserve Biodiversity in the Oil and Gas Industry.
The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) also proposes a guide to biodiversity
this includes an environmental impact assessment (UNEP, 2005). In this study, the pressure
The Status, Impact, Response (PSIR) framework is used to establish the cause-and-effect relationship between
the exploration and production activities and the coastal ecosystem. There are three orders of magnitude
excellent in terms of oil and gas exploration activities. First order concerns the
Effects of cutting edges, harmful substances and hydrocarbons on the coastal ecosystem
as the dwelling people; The second order concerns the indirect effects associated with the first
Order or all exploration and production activities. This order can affect the ecosystem
Functions and / or effects on the socio-economic structure of society. The third order concerns the loss of
Ecosystem services for local coastal residents. These effects are identified and analyzed
based on the guidelines of IPIECA, UNEP and International Finance Corporation (IFC).
Current ecosystem services and their values play a critical role in assessing actual oil costs
and gas exploration. The assessment of coastal ecosystem services is based on the three-type approach
Service approach (production, regulation and cultural services) as described by Hein et al. (2006).
This approach complies with the IPIECA directive and is also based on Pearce and
Mille Turner (1990), Costanza et al. (1997), De Groot et al. (2002) and Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (2003). The reason for this framework is its strength to avoid or minimize
Double counting. For example, the support services proposed by the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (2003) is not included because it is reflected in other service categories.
2. How can Ghana deal with environmental and social impacts in legislation?
Oil and gas exploration to be analyzed?
Legislation and policy analysis are based on literature research. This includes a review of
institutional provisions relating to coastal environmental governance. Here I examine the different ones
international environmental conventions that Ghana has signed and assess whether Ghana has signed them
Emission standards correspond to international ones. In particular, I analyze three main aspects of
Ghana’s legislation: (1) adequacy of emission standards in Ghana (2) applicability of these standards
Emission standards for the oil and gas industry and (3) law enforcement. I use that
Policy framework of the European Energy Agency (EEA, 2001) for environmental reporting
Assessment of Ghana’s Coastal Ecosystem Protection and Biodiversity Policy. The EUA
The framework includes analyzing the impact, relevance, effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of each one
Politics. However, for the purposes of this study, I consider the impact, relevance, and effectiveness
Aspects of the frame. The question of whether a policy measure is cost-effective is outside the scope of
this thesis. The EEA’s policy framework covers three main areas: political process,
Outside world and evaluation. The political process begins with the achievement of goals
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Taking into account the needs of society. The goals must be transformed into a kind of policy
However, measures (outputs) require inputs in the form of human and financial resources. This
Political measures would ultimately have an impact on the environment, the target group, the
Economy and society. In fact, societal needs and policy outcomes are in
Fact outside of political processes. A schematic representation of the European Energy Agency
The political framework is shown in Figure 2.
3. How can recommendations for the management of related environmental and social
Effects of oil and gas exploration in Ghana?
Explicit recommendations are based on the results of this study. Also lessons from
Other established oil producing countries are used to improve the recommendations.
Figure 2: Policy framework of the European Energy Agency; EEA (2001, p.20)
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4. RESULTS
4.1 Impact of oil and gas exploration and production on the coastal areas of
Ghana
4.1.1 Description of exploration and production of oil and gas
In general, two main parts are distinguished in the oil and gas industry: (1) upstream, which
deals with the exploration and production part of industry and (2) the downstream, the
takes care of the refining and processing of petroleum and natural gas products, sales and marketing.
Typically, a company is fully integrated in this industry, which means that it does both
Upstream and downstream operations or can focus on only one aspect, such as
Exploration and production alone or sales or marketing. In every part of the industry
There may be mini companies (commonly referred to as contractors) that offer different ones
Level of services. For example, the upstream can consist of subcontractors that provide technical services
Services such as geophysical surveying, drilling and cementing or non-technical services such as
Catering, hotels and cleaning services.
The exploration and production of oil and gas essentially comprises five main processes: (1)
Prospection Surveying (2) Exploration Drilling (3) Assessment (4) Development and Production (5)
Decommissioning and rehabilitation. The prospection measurement begins with a review of
geological maps to identify important sedimentary rock pools. An antenna can connect to it
Photography to identify promising geological formations such as faults or antique lines. A field
An assessment is then carried out to obtain more detailed information. Finally, a survey is carried out
using one of these three methods: magnetic, gravimetric and seismic. The exploration drilling
involves the creation of exploration wells (“wildcats”) to confirm the presence of hydrocarbons and
the thickness and internal pressure of containers. Closed offshore mobile in Ghana
Drilling units (MODUs) are used. The assessment phase includes determining the size of the
Oilfield and thus the profitability for development and production. Usually more wells
(“Outstep” or “appraisal” wells) are drilled to assess the size of the field and to determine the type of
the reservoir, the number of confirming wells and also whether there is any further seismic work
required. If the oil field is found to be economical, a reservoir is made from it
many assessment wells or from development wells. Many developments take place here such as
the replacement of heavy drill pipes with lighter pipes in the borehole and a control valve
Assembly replaces blowout preventer. The underground is also at this stage of development
The pressures are maintained by either blowing gas, water, or electricity into the reservoir. hydraulic
The fracture of the hydrocarbon bearing formation and the acid treatment can be carried out in order to
Flow channels. As soon as the hydrocarbon reaches the surface, it is pumped into production
Plant that separates oil, gas and water. So, the development and production phase is looking for
extract oil and gas from the reservoir through geological formation pressure, artificial buoyancy,
and other advanced techniques until the oil supply is completely used up. Decommissioning and
In the renovation phase, the production structures are dismantled and the location restored
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environmentally compatible standards. This usually happens at the end of field production
Life. However, in the course of production, boreholes are classified as unproductive
also shut down.
Exploration of hydrocarbons in Ghana dates back to 1896 when oil seeped onto the coast
Tano Basin in the western region of Ghana. This eventually led to drilling exploration holes in
the neighborhood of Half-Asini (GNPC, 2009). To date, around 10 discoveries have been made
79 exploration wells were drilled in Ghana, including 18 onshore wells. Nobody but that
Saltpond Field, discovered in 1970 and located about 100 km west of Accra
Around 3.47 million barrels of oil were extracted between 1978 and 1985
(MMbo) and flaring 14 billion cubic feet of gas (Bcf) (GNPC, 2009). Hydrocarbon
Exploration and production activities remained silent between 1986 and 2000
Operations have been revived. Exploration and production processes are currently at various levels
in Ghana’s four sediment basins, namely the Cote d’Ivoire-Tano basin (including
Cape Three Points Sub-Basin), Central Basin (Saltpond), Accra / Keta Basin and Inland Voltaian
Pool.
The most promising discovery to date is the anniversary field discovered in 2007
The Jubilee Unit Area comprises part of the Deepwater Tano and West Cape Three Points license areas.
The exploratory company Kosmos Ghana HC initially drilled the mahogany 1 well to the west
Cape three point block. This was followed later by another well, Hyedua-1, which was drilled by Tullow
Oil in the Deepwater Tano Block. It was later confirmed that there was a continuous hydrocarbon
Accumulation between the two properties. Subsequent advice fountain, namely mahogany
2, Hyedua-2 and Mahogany-3 were completed by early 2009. The development of the anniversary
Field is carried out as part of a phase approach. Phase 1 includes the installation of a
FPSO ship (Floating Production Storage and Offloading). Overall, phase 1 of development
consists of 17 wells; Nine production wells brought oil and gas from the underground
Surface reservoir, six water and two gas injection holes into which water and gas can be injected back
the reservoir for maintaining pressure and improving oil recovery. It is planned that five of the
Production wells and the three water injection wells target the Lower Mahogany Reservoir
the remaining four production wells, three water injection wells and the two gas injection wells
aim at the Upper Mahogany Reservoir. A range of installed underwater fountain heads, manifolds and
Pipelines connect the wells to the FPSO ship, which is designed for the processing and storage of crude oil
Oil and gas. The processed crude oil is then exported to the market and to the refinery
Export tankers. In the meantime, it is planned to use the gas from phase I development
to generate electrical energy for the FPSO and also for re-injection into the wells. There, however
In the future, it is planned to process the gas on land to generate electricity.
According to Ghana’s deputy minister of energy, Dr. Kwabena Donkor, was phase 1 of the
The anniversary field is expected to commence commercial operations in 2010 with daily production
Capacity of approximately 120,000 barrels of oil and 120,000 million standard cubic feet of dry gas. The
The numbers are expected to double, ie 240,000 barrels of oil and 240,000 million cubic feet of dry matter
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Gas, in the second phase of the anniversary field project, which is scheduled to start in 2013
The evaluations carried out so far show reserves of around 800 million barrels of raw light with one
Upside potential of around three billion barrels (Ghanaweb, 2009a). It is estimated that the
The predicted lifespan of 25 years of oil and gas production from the anniversary field could bring the profit
$ 25 billion (Ghanaweb, 2009b).
The exploration and production of oil and natural gas in Ghana is one of them
economic challenges. These challenges can arise from one or more of the following factors: Project
Footprint, operational discharges, air emissions, waste management, risk of oil pollution,
economic and human impacts, cumulative and cross-border impacts.
4.1.2 First order of impact
The first order of effectiveness in the oil and gas industry includes activities with immediate effects
or environmental impact. In Ghana’s oil and gas exploration and
In production, each phase shows its peculiar primary effects, that of the
Release of emissions, discharges, collisions and physical destruction of the sea floor. This impact
evoke the second and third order of impact over time. The following table shows the
Production phases and the associated pollutants.
Table 1: Project phases and associated pollutants
phase
activities
Type of impact sources
pressures
prospecting
Air measurement atmospheric
noise
emissions
Low-level flights sound
NOx and SO 2
Seismic
operations
water
noise
Seismic
equipment
sound
man
Störschiffe
to disturb
other resource
Users like fishing
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phase
activities
Type of impact sources
pressures
prospecting
ship
operations
water
discharges
noise
Bilges, ballast
Water sewage,
Spill, trash
Marine engines
heavy metals
e.g. Ba, Cd, Zn,
pb
rubbish
sound
Atmospheric
emissions
Ships
combustion
Engines
CO 2 , CO, NOx,
VOC, SO 2 ,
particulate
Affairs
exploration
Drill
and
rating
water
noise
discharges
Mobile offshore
drilling unit
(MODU)
drill cuttings,
Drill liquids
Process, wash &
drainage water
Spills and
leaks
sewerage,
sanitary and
household rubbish
sound
heavy metals
e.g. Ba, Cd, Zn,
pb
Oil, salt,
Benzene, PAK,
Naturally
occur
radioactive
material
(STANDARD)
Sewerage and
household rubbish
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phase
activities
Type of impact sources
pressures
exploration
Drill
and
rating
Atmospheric
emissions
flaring,
purge gases
combustion
of engines and
gas turbines
particle
Affairs
of
disturbed
sea
Beds and burning
Sources, for example, good
testing
CO 2 , CO, CH 4 ,
NOx, VOC, SO 2 ,
hydrogen
dioxide,
particulate
Affairs
man
interference
Interference with
other resource
Users like fishing
exploitation
(Development
and production)
FPSO
installation
water
noise
FPSO
Equipment,
support
Ships
Propeller and
helicopter
Move
sound
man
interference
FPSO
Interference with
Fishing boats and
canoes
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phase
activities
Type of impact sources
pressures
exploitation
(Development
and production)
Processing and
camp
water
discharges
Water produced,
gray water, black
Water, deck
Water, bilge
water ballast
water cooling
Water, oil spill,
Leakage, hydraulic
liquids
Solid waste
heavy metals
e.g. Ba, Cd, Zn,
Pb; Oil, salt,
Benzene, PAK,
STANDARD
rubbish
Atmospheric
emissions
flaring,
purge gases,
Ships
combustion
Engines, power
Generating plant
helicopter
operations
CO 2 , CO, CH 4 ,
NOx, VOC, SO 2 ,
hydrogen
dioxide,
particulate
counts, H 2 S
transport
water
noise
discharges
tankers
Leakage, spillage,
Ballast water
Greywater, bilge
water
sound
heavy metals
e.g. Ba, Cd, Zn,
Pb; Oil, salt,
Benzene, PAK,
STANDARD
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4.1.3 Second field order
These indirect effects are summarized in the second order of magnitude of the effects on the oil and gas industry
the result from the project. For example, the exploration and production of oil and gas in Ghana
offers enormous employment opportunities. These are paired with salary differences
enough to serve as an incentive for the residents of the surrounding communities to give up
Agriculture, fishing and other related economic activities related to petroleum. Such a shift can result
especially in other economic sectors, the agricultural sector is suffering. Fear too
for better jobs in oil and gas exploration, the region’s population can become explosive
Coastal communities that would ultimately put pressure on existing public facilities, such as
Hospitals, schools, public transportation, etc. Drilling fluids work within the coastal ecosystem
For example, coastal phytoplankton can have indirect consequences for its predators.
Here, although the predator itself is not directly affected by the drilling fluids, the effect on it
Praying can have serious consequences for the predator’s survival. Likewise, the changes in the water
The quality due to chemical discharges can also affect the functions of the ecosystem
Marine fauna. The secondary impacts can be ecological, anthropological or socio-ecological
economical in nature. A summary of the possible secondary effects of Ghana’s oil and gas
Exploration and production include the following:
phase
activities
Type of impact sources
pressures
exploitation
(Development
and production)
transport
man
interference
Ships
Interference with
Fishing boats and
canoes
Atmospheric
emissions
Ships
combustion
Engines
CO 2 , CO, CH 4 ,
NOx, VOC, SO 2 ,
hydrogen
dioxide,
particulate
Affairs
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1. Increase in local population (immigration) leading to:
(a) Traffic congestion and traffic accidents
(b) prevalence of diseases, e.g. B. HIV AIDS
(c) Social tensions such as:
Pressure on social institutions: schools, health and leisure facilities
Aesthetic deterioration due to the increase in slums
Improved access to nature reserves or undeveloped areas
2. Effects on other economic sectors, e.g. B. Task of the oil and gas industry
Industry can affect agriculture.
3. High prices for goods and services, inflation, income differentiation.
4. Effects on ecosystem functions
5. Introduction of alien species
4.1.4 Third impact order
These effects are also known as accumulated effects and are manifested via a
longer time. These can result from a continuous accumulation of the first and / or the second
the second blow. Most of the ecosystem services are in the area in which the exploration takes place
and production activities are hampered. Ecosystem services can be defined as
Suitable for people who come from ecosystems (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003). Hein et al
(2006) distinguished three main types of services in natural and near-natural ecosystems. This
include: production, regulation and cultural services.
(I)
Delivery services refer to products or goods that are sourced from the ecosystem.
The inhabitants of ecosystems generally use and convert energy into various forms.
which are then used by humans. Examples are food, fuel, genetic resources,
Dietary fiber, ornamental plants, feed, raw materials etc.
(Ii)
Service regulation reflects these benefits due to the ability of the ecosystem
regulate essential ecological processes and life support systems
biochemical cycles and other biosphere processes. Such ecosystem services include
Carbon sequestration; Air regulations; Control of albedo, temperature, precipitation
Template; Flood protection; Pollination; biological nitrogen fixation, nutrient recycling etc.
(iii) Cultural services concern the benefits that humans derive from ecosystems
Relaxation, cognitive development, relaxation and reflection. This includes the
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Happiness that people gain by realizing that a particular ecosystem a
certain biodiversity or the fact that important cultural monuments are preserved.
Examples of this service are Habitat; Provision of cultural, historical and
Heritage; scientific and educational information; Recreation; Tourism etc.
Based on studies conducted for the Environmental Protection Agency (Armah et al., 2004)
The following ecosystem services can be identified in the coastal areas of Ghana:
a) Food : Fish species include the dominant pelagic stocks and demersal species. The pelagic
The stocks in the coastal waters of Ghana include the Round Sardinelles (Sardinella aurita) and the Flat Sardinelles
(Sardinella maderensis) , chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus), anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) ,
Horse mackerel ( Trachurus sp.), Tuna ( Euthynnus alletteratus ), bonga shad ( Ethmalosa
Fimbriata ), African sunfish ( Selene dorsalis ), West African Ilisha ( Ilisha africana ), large head
Hairtail ( Triciurus lepturus ), bellflower ( Caranx hippos ), Atlantic bumper ( Chloroscombrus
Chrysurus ), Barracuda ( Sphyraena sp.), Tuna and Billfish. There are likely to be 89 species
found in Ghanaian waters in the deep area of the jubilee field (1,100 and 1,700 m) (EPA,
2009).
The round Sardinelles train in the coastal waters from the shore to the edge of the continent
Shelf. It feeds mainly on zooplankton, especially copepods, with the exception of the young animals that prefer it
the phytoplankton. The spawning times of the Sardinella rounds decrease with the periods of
Coast ascent. Spawning takes place in March, but the most significant spawning season is
between July and October with peak spawning in August (marine fisheries research department,
2003). Adolescents generally stay in kindergarten areas, but return to adult stocks when they reach maturity off the coast
Flat Sardinelles feed on a variety of small planktonic invertebrates, fish larvae and phytoplankton.
They spawn in July. The small pelagic fish are hunted by the big ones like yellow fins
Tuna ( Thunnus albacares ), Bigeye Tuna ( Thunnus obsesus ) and Skipjack Tuna ( Katsuwonus)
Pelamis ). The billfish are mostly not in large quantities in the Ghanaian coastal zone and they
include swordfish, Atlantic Blue Marlin and Atlantic Sailfish.
Figure 3: Flat Sardinella (Sardinella maderensis ) Source: Armah et al., 2004
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Bottom living species of commercial importance are redfish, burros, croaker,
Snappers, goat fish, groupers and twine fins (Department of Marine Fisheries Research, 2003).
Other coastal species that provide food include shellfish, shrimp, and shrimp. The shellfish
The stocks in Ghana’s coastal waters mainly consist of scallops ( Chlamys purpuratus and Pecten
Jacobeus ). However, the distribution of these shells is quite sketchy and mostly
sensitive to interference from trawlers (Armah et al., 2004). Species of shrimp in coastal waters of
Ghana includes Penaeidenarten ( Penaeus notialis and Penaeus setiferus ). These species migrate
from coastal waters to offshore areas to spawn. The migration is triggered by a decrease in
Salinity due to freshwater runoff during the rainy season in June and September.
These types of fish are mainly found at the Cape Three Points, where the anniversary takes place
Field located (Armah et al, 2004)
(b) Genetic resources : Various organisms live in Ghana’s coastal waters
these are of genetic and medical importance. These include phytoplankton,
Zooplanktons, pelagic fish, benthic invertebrates off the coast, marine mammals,
Sea turtles etc. Polychaete is one of the invertebrates found in Ghana’s coastal waters
Worms, tapeworms, amphipods, mussels, gastropods and crustaceans. The
The frequency and spread of these species are influenced by seasonal climate changes.
It has been found that polychaetes and crustaceans increasingly come into contact with water
The depth decreases as echinoderms, oligochaetes and sipunculids decrease with the water
Depth.
(c) Nutrient recycling : The seasonal increase that takes place every year in the Gulf of Guinea
from June to the end of September (strong increase) and from December to January (slight increase)
Bring cold, nutrient-rich water to the surface, creating plankton blooms. During the upswing
Periods in which the phytoplankton from diatoms such as Leptocylindrus sp. , Nitzchia sp .,
Chaetoceros sp. and Rhizosolenia sp and Skeletonema costatum . During periods no
dominate dinoflagellates. The proliferation of such a phytoplankton is important for
Nutritional conversions in the coastal food chain. The numerous coastal inhabitants are also important
Microflora and microfauna.
(d) Habitat: The coastal waters of Ghana serve as a habitat for numerous species. Under these
Species are birds, turtles, marine mammals, molluscs, etc. Sea turtles are particularly common in
the list of animals that are currently legally protected in Ghana. There are five species of sea turtles
found in the coastal waters of Ghana: the Hawksbill ( Erectmochelys imbricate ), the Leatherback
( Dermochelys coriacea ), the hawksbill turtle ( Caretta caretta ), the green turtle ( Chelonia mydas ),
and the Olive Ridley turtle ( Lepidochelys olivacea ) (Armah et al., 1997). The green and
Loggerhead turtles are listed by the (International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
classified as endangered and the leatherback turtle classified as endangered. According to Carr and
Campbell (1995), the Olive Ridley turtle, is the most common species in Ghana.
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4.1.5 The ecology on land at Cape Three Point
The onshore ecosystem around Cape Three Point, where the jubilee field is located, consists of two
Species: Sandy Shores and Rocky Shores. The sandy shores are known to serve as nesting sites
Sea turtles and as habits for species such as ghost cancer ( Ocypoda cursa ), the isopod Excirolana
Latipes , the amphipods Urothoe grimaldi and Pontharpinia intermedia, the Mysid Gastrosaccus
Spinifer , mole crab ( Hippa cubensi) , the polychata Narine cirratulus, Glycera convoluta and
Lumbrinereis impatien s, the double- shelled Donax pulchellus and the gastropods Terebra micans and
Olivancillaria hiatula . In addition, other bethical fauna and pelagic species can be found in
shallow water off the sandy shores. Strand vegetation in the sandy shores includes creepers:
Canavalia rosea, Ipomea pes-caprae ; and grasses: Cyperus maritimus , Diodia vaginalis . Furthermore
inland the sandy coast is characterized by vegetation, to which dwarf palms, coconut palms,
Phoenix reclinata and the shrubs Baphia nitida , Grewia spp. , Sophora occidentalis , Thespesia
populnea and Triumfetta rhombaidea .
The rocky shores are important habitats for macroalgae, barnacles and stone snails.
that use the rocks as a substrate. Ecologically speaking, algae mats play an important role on rocky shores
Microhabitats for epifauna (ie crustaceans, macro invertebrates) and fish. Dominant types of
Macroalgae include: Sargassum vulgare , Dictyopteris delicatula , Ulva fasciata, Chaetomorpha
sp. and Lithothamnia sp. The snails are the Littorina punctata . Other snails often
You will find Nodilittorina meleagris, Nerita senegalensis and the Pustel Thais among others
Hemastoma . The dominant limpets are Siphonaria pectinata, Fissurella nubecula and Patella
safiana. In some places oysters ( Ostrea sp. ) Can be found under the barnacles. In addition a
Emagazine.credit-suisse.com/app/art … = 157 & lang = de Many fish species dominate the rocky shores, including Regenbogenlippfische ( Coris
Julis ), parrot wrasse ( Callyodon ), moray eels and dragon heads .
Rain forests line the Ehunli and Akpuhu lagoons and one along the coast of Cape Three Point
Estuary where the Nyile and Kpani rivers meet along the west coast. Cape Three
Point Forest Reserve also occurs in this area. A total of 141 species belong to 58 different ones
Figure 4: Algae on the rocky shores of Ghana. Source: Armah et al., 2004
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Plant families of trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses and sedge have been observed in this area
(Armah et al., 2004).
4.2 The ability of Ghanaian legislation to deal with environmental and
economic impact of oil and gas exploration
4.2.1 Overview of relevant national legislation and strategies
The legal framework for coastal zone management in Ghana includes:
The Constitution
EPA Act, 1994 (Act 490
Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance, 1999 (LI 1652)
Local Government Act 1993 (Law 462)
Environmental standards and guidelines
4.2.1.1 The Constitution
The Ghana Constitution requires that all citizens (workers and employers) and protect
Protection of the natural environment of the Republic of Ghana and its territorial waters. This is
specifically stated in Article 41 (k) in Chapter 6 of the Constitution. Sustainable use and
The conservation of marine resources is promoted by laws, regulations, education and environmental protection
Awareness programs and enforcement of existing legislation. Specific sectoral
Frameworks include:
(a) The legal framework for fisheries resources:
Fisheries Act 1971 (PNDCL 256)
Fisheries Act 625 (2002)
The Fisheries Act 625 (2002 ) established the Fisheries Commission with a directorate whose
Mission is “… to promote the sustainable use and responsible use of fishery resources
from Ghana through sound management practices, research, appropriate technological development
for culture and catch fishing, effective expansion and provision of other support services
to fish farmers, fishers, fish processors and traders for an improved income and fish feed
Security “. The Commission, as a body, regulates and manages the use of fishing
Ghana resources and coordinate related policies. The Commission is also responsible for this
Proper conservation of fisheries resources by preventing overfishing.
In administrative terms, the directorate has subdivisions at regional level that are responsible for this
Implementation and implementation of the fisheries directorate policy in the different regions.
The operational areas within the Directorate include management of inland fisheries (and
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Aquaculture); Marine fisheries research; Monitoring; Control and monitoring; and finance and
Administration.
Section 91 permits the establishment of marine protected areas and prohibits fishing and dredging
and removal of sand or gravel and the disturbance of the natural habitat without permission
Minister. Section 92 prohibits the pollution of water that can have a negative impact on water
Resources and provides details on penalties. According to § 93 the fisheries commission must be
be informed of all activities that are likely to have a significant impact on fisheries resources
Commissioning and authorization of the Fisheries Commission to request reports and
Recommendations from the applicant on the likely impact of the action and the possible funding for
Avoiding or minimizing adverse effects when planning
the Activities.
(b) The legal framework for the protection of ecosystems:
Maritime Area Act (PNDCL 159 from 1986)
Animals Wild Animals Preservation Act 1961 (Law 43)
Animal welfare regulations 1971 (LI685)
Game Reserve Ordinance of 1971 (LI 740)
The Ordinance on the Management of Wetlands (Ramsar Areas) of 1999
Law on Oil in Navigable Waters of 1964 (Law 235)
The Maritime Area Act (PNDCL 159 of 1986) defines the scope of the
Coastal Sea and Ghana Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The territorial sea is defined as
these waters within 12 nautical miles from the low water line of the sea. The
The law defines the EEZ as the area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea of less than two hundred
Nautical miles (approx. 396 km) from the low waterline of the sea. The law also grants that
to the extent permitted by international law, the Government of Ghana for the
Purposes of:
“Research and exploitation, conservation and management of natural resources, whether living or living
non-living bodies of water superimposed on the sea floor and the sea floor and its subsoil, and
with regard to other activities related to economic exploration and exploitation of the zone, such as
the generation of energy from water, currents and winds … ”
The Law on Oil in Navigable Waters (Law 235 of 1964) deals with the control of water
Pollution. The law provides for the discharge of oil or oil-containing mixtures from any ship or tank
a crime from the country. The owner or captain of the ship or the land user or the person in
Loads of the apparatus from which the oil has been drained can be charged and found guilty
the offensive.
Section 1 of the law regulates the discharge of oil into prohibited marine areas. The act
extends the ban on pollution on the high seas from ships registered and required in Ghana
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Ghanaian ships must be equipped to prevent oil leaks or oil from flowing into the bilges
(unless the oil in the bilges is not drained).
(c) The legal framework for the oil and gas industry
Ghana National Petroleum Corporation Act (Law 64 of 1983)
Petroleum Act (Exploration and Production) from 1984 (PNDCL 84)
National Petroleum Authority Act (Law 691 of 2005 )
Mineral Ordinance (Offshore) from 1963 (LI 257)
Mineral Oil and Gas Ordinance from 1963 (LI 256)
Oil and Mining Ordinance , 1957 (LI 221)
The Ghana National Petroleum Corporation Act (Law 64 of 1983) established Ghana
National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) with a mandate to:
• Promote exploration and planned development of the Republic’s petroleum resources
Ghana;
• derive maximum benefit from the exploitation of its oil resources;
• get effective technology transfer related to petroleum operations;
• Ensure citizen training and national skills development; and
• prevent negative impacts on the environment, resources and people in Ghana as a result of
Petroleum operation.
The Petroleum (Exploration and Production) Law (Law 84 of 1984) sets the legal and
Tax framework for petroleum exploration and production activities in Ghana. The law states
the rights, obligations and responsibilities of the contractor; Information on oil contracts; and
Compensation for those affected by activities in the petroleum sector. Act 84 gives
Regulatory authority to the Department of Energy on behalf of the state. All oil companies
must be carried out in such a way that adverse effects on the environment are avoided,
Resources and people in Ghana. The law requires that a development plan (PoD) be proposed
Developments must be submitted and approved by the GNPC, the Department of Energy and the EPA
before developing the field. In addition, an environmental, health and safety
Manual with details on health, safety and environmental aspects, policies and procedures
must be submitted to the GNPC for review before beginning development activities. The
The law also requires that the EPA and GNPC conduct EHS audits. The act
requires that contingency plans for dealing with accidents and incidents be discussed and agreed
with the GNPC and the EPA before starting business.
The National Petroleum Authority Act (Law 691 of 2005) created the National Petroleum
Ghanaian government agency (NPA) with a mandate to regulate, monitor and monitor downstream
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Petroleum activities. The NPA is also mandated to set up a Unified Petroleum Price Fund and
provide for the regulation and approval of the storage and sale of petroleum products.
d) The legal framework for tourism promotion (including coastal tourism)
Investment Ghana Investment Promotion Center Act 1994 (Law 478)
Company Code 1963 (Law 179)
Free Zone Act 1995 (Act 504)
Ghana Tourist Board
Kultur Ghana Culture Commission
4.2.1.2 EPA Act, 1994 (Act 490)
The Environmental Protection Act (Law 490 of 1994) establishes authority, responsibility,
Structure and funding of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Part I of the law prescribes
the EPA with the formulation of the environmental policy, the granting of environmental permits and
Advice on reducing pollution as well as prescribing standards and guidelines. The law defines that
Requirements and responsibilities of environmental inspectors and empowers the
The EPA requests that an environmental impact assessment (EIA) be carried out.
Section 10 of Part 2 of the Act provides for the establishment of a hazardous chemical
Committee consisting of representatives of the main governmental organizations interested in
Chemical management, monitoring and advising the EPA on imports, exports,
Manufacturing, distribution, use and disposal of hazardous chemicals. However, the law does not
define certain important terms that have been used, e.g. B. chemicals, toxic substances and
dangerous substances. The department of the EPA, Chemicals Control and Management
Center (CCMC) plays an important role in chemical management in Ghana. The
The primary goal of CCMC is to protect human health and the environment from what is possible
Effects of chemicals. The CCMC grants chemical approval to importers of industrial products
Chemicals. Applicants must submit an application form and copies of the application form
Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for each chemical you want to import into Ghana
CCMC. These applications are then examined on the basis of the information provided on the Internet
Safety data sheet and other sources. The CCMC also monitors the disposal of outdated chemicals.
Section 2 (f) of the Environmental Protection Act (Act 490 of 1994 ) enables the EPA to be issued
Environmental protection notices for:
… “ Control of quantity, type, components and effects of waste, emissions,
Deposits or other sources of pollutants and substances that are dangerous or potential
dangerous to the quality of the environment or any segment of the environment … ”
Section 2 (h) of the Act allows the EPA to prescribe standards and guidelines related to air,
Water, land and other forms of pollution. According to Section 2 (j), the EPA
Work with district assemblies and other bodies to control pollution.
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4.2.1.3 Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance, 1999 (LI 1652)
The Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance of 1999 (LI 1652) is a main regulation within the EU
Environmental Protection Act (Act 490 of 1994) and it requires environmental pollution
Assessment procedures (EIA) are carried out. In particular, all activities in which impairment is to be expected
Environmental effects must be subjected to an environmental assessment and approval must be given
before starting work. The regulations contain the requirements for the
following:
• Preliminary Environmental Reports (PERs);
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA);
• Environmental Impact Statements (EIS);
• Environmental management plans (EMPs).
• environmental certificates; and
• environmental permit.
4.2.2 Relevant international environmental agreements and conventions
Ghana-ratified environmental agreements include:
a) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982
This international convention has been implemented in Ghana’s national law in the Federal Republic of Germany
Maritime Zones Act (Delimitation) (PNDCL 159 of 1986) . Ghana claims under this convention
Rights within 12 nautical miles (nautical miles) of the territorial waters and an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles (nautical miles)
(AWZ).
(b) The MARPOL Convention
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78)
makes it mandatory for the ratified parties to comply with the rules on the prevention of
Oil pollution (Appendix I) and regulations to control pollution from harmful liquids
Bulk substances (Annex II). However, the subsequent four additional attachments can be voluntary
accepted. In this case, Ghana has so far only ratified the first two mandatory annexes. The
The convention lays down general requirements for the control and discharge of waste oil.
Motor oil, gray and black sewage in the sea.
(c) International Agreement on Oil Preparation, Response and Cooperation (OPRC) adopted
1990th
This convention requires the parties to take comprehensive measures to deal with threats
Main incidence of marine pollution. The convention requires inventory from
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Oil pollution control equipment, oil pollution control exercises and development
detailed plans for dealing with pollution incidents. Contracting parties to the convention are obliged
Provide help to third parties in the event of a pollution emergency and take precautions for
Refund of assistance.
(d) the Convention on the Control of Transboundary Shipments of Hazardous Waste and its
Disposal (Basel Convention).
Ghana acceded to the Basel Convention on May 30, 2003
Ghana to fully adapt to the convention. Under this Agreement, Hazardous Waste Producers
are obliged to dispose of their waste in an environmentally friendly manner near their destination
is produced. However, it is envisaged that certain countries will transport their waste
especially if it is assumed that the exporting country is unable or able to manage
dispose of in an environmentally friendly manner. In this case, Ghana qualifies for
Export waste, however, must fully comply with the provisions of the Basel Convention.
e) Convention on the Prohibition of Import into Africa and Control of Cross-Border Import
Dangerous waste shipments within Africa (Bamako Convention)
This convention is more or less an addition to the Basel Convention and aims to:
Import and transfer of hazardous waste to and from African countries
Parties to the convention.
(f) Other relevant conventions
Other conventions ratified by Ghana that have the potential to overcome the effects of the convention
Oil and gas exploration, including:
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Oil (October 21
1962);
Über International Convention Establishing an International Fund for
Compensation for oil pollution damage: 18 th December 1971
Internationale The International Convention for the Cooperation in the Protection and Development of
the marine and coastal environment of the West and Central African region,
1981 (Abidjan Convention)
African Convention for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (September 15th
1968);
International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (November 29
1969);
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Convention on wetlands of international importance, especially as a habitat for water birds
(February 2, 1971);
Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (16
November 1972);
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (June 23, 1979);
International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna Fish (May 4, 1966);
Convention for the Cooperation in the Protection and Development of Maritime and Inland Navigation
Coastal environment of the West and Central Africa, 1981 (Abidjan
Convention);
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (July 24, 1989);
Framework Convention on Climate Change (June 1992);
Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992;
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (September 7, 2000);
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (September 7, 2000); and
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (accession on January 24, 1989).
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972)
4.3 Analysis of the possible effects on the coastal ecosystem and people
live in the coastal zone of Ghana
The different impact orders are not completely independent of one another. one influences the
other. For example, a physical disruption to the seabed caused by drilling and infrastructure
Facilities would primarily or directly destroy the habitats of certain types of benthos. However,
The sediments released by disturbances of the sea floor can very likely arise
secondary breathing problems of other fish species or biodiversity. An ongoing blockade of
Respiratory organs can ultimately lead to death and thereby impair the supply to the population
Ecosystem. This example shows a chain that starts from the first to the third order from
A hit. Maintaining the impacts in this way makes it essential that the potential impacts are
are viewed and analyzed together. On this basis, I analyze the effects after the
Exposures or pollutants in connection with the three order of effects in two main headings:
Ecosystem and socio-economic impact.
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4.3.1 Effects on ecosystem and biodiversity
4.3.1.1 Noise
As already shown in table (1), the exploration work is carried out into the development and production phase
are associated with pressures that sound (noise) from seismic operations, ships and
Helicopter activities. Noise at certain levels is intolerable to some marine organisms and can
interrupt their functions within the ecosystem. Noise can occur in extreme situations
Temporary or permanent hearing trauma in marine mammals and sea turtles in a range of a
a few hundred meters of a typical air rifle arrangement, especially when swimming under the arrangement.
Richardson et al . (1995) reported that structures are present in human ears and most marine
Mammals are sensitive to changes in sound pressure and noise in coastal waters
Impaired ability of marine mammals to recognize calls from individuals of the same species,
Echolocation pulses or other important natural noises. Fish and marine mammals including
Whales and dolphins are most affected by noise pollution in coastal areas
Waters because of their dependence on sound for reproduction, feeding, avoiding hazards such as
Predators and navigation (Tyack and Miller 2002; Popper 2003; McCauley 1994). The effects
of noise on whales was in a study by Parente et al. (2007).
In their study, they saw no significant change in all measured oceanographic conditions
with the exception of seismic survey noise, which was kept at an elevated level. The study reported a decline in
Diversity of whales in areas with strong seismic noise, while in areas without strong seismic noise
Noise saw an increase in the diversity of whales. This report indicates a decline in the whale population
with an increase in seismic noise.
The effects of sound in coastal waters come from two main sources: (a) natural like waves
Noise, rain, lightning strikes on the water, earthquakes, etc. and (b) anthropogenic or man-made,
that includes those from the oil and gas industry and containers. However, as Rabin and Greene
(2002) noted that, due to evolution, the coastal animals are adapted to the natural sounds of the coast
But the development of anthropogenic sources is comparatively new and their level is
increasing rapidly, so that coastal animals are unlikely to keep pace and adapt genetically. Other
The effects of noise on marine animals have been reported to include death, reduced growth and reduction
Production, hearing loss and stress (Fernández et al. 2005; Slotte et al. 2004; Wysocki et al.
2006).
Given the rich biodiversity in Ghana’s coastal waters, which include marine mammals, and
With some endangered species of sea turtles, it is obvious that the offshore exploration and
Production noise would negatively affect these animals. Most of the machines and ships used
Noise levels between 120 and 100% can arise in oil and gas exploration and production
220 ( dB re 1 μPa at 1 m) and generally have low frequencies with a maximum of around 100
kHz (Richardson et al., 1995). The coastal waters of Cape Three Point are now considered one
Migration route for most whales and dolphins especially in Dixcove Beach Area, where this
Mammals have been discovered (Van Waerebeek et al, 2009). Some of the spotted whales in and
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To include the operational area and the adjacent waters of neighboring La Cote d’Ivoire
the most noise-sensitive species such as the sperm whale and the baleen whale (humpback whale).
These species show behavioral responses at noise levels between 120 dB and 180 dB
(McCauley, 1994). It is important to note that these values are below and / or within them
produced from oil and gas operating machines and tanks. Still, the noise can
either improve the diversion of the whale route or avoid such areas immediately. Stone (2003)
reported that seismic surveys in British waters saw fewer species of dolphins
Often when air guns fire as if they were not firing. In addition, baleen whales,
During this time, killer whales and all small odontocetes were further away from large groups of air guns
Periods in which air guns were fired when the air guns were silent. Generally small
odontocetes showed the strongest avoidance response to seismic activity, with baleen whales and
Local avoidance killer whales, low impact pilot whales and sperm
Whales showed no observed effects from this data. Different groups of whales can adopt
different strategies for responding to acoustic disturbances from seismic surveys (Stone, 2003). If
Increased noise triggers a route diversion, then it is obvious that not only Ghana will suffer from it
Consequences, but the sub-region as a whole. The implication is that Ghana and the sub-region
(including Côte d’Ivoire) could lose tourism that would otherwise have been a great source
Revenue and employment.
Figure 5: Atlantic dolphin, Stenella frontalis, for sale on January 3, 2003 on the Dixcove landing beach.
Source: (Van Waerebeek et al, 2009)
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Figure 6: Feresa attenuata, a Zwergkillerwal in adult size , which has landed 31 December 2007 on the beach of Dixcove Source: (Van
Waerebeek et al., 2009)
Figure 7: Two long-beaked dolphins, Delphinus capensis, which landed next to a smooth hammerhead shark and
an unidentified billfish (Istiophoridae) in Dixcove on October 18, 1999. Source: (Van Waerebeek et al, 2009)
In addition, the shores of Cape Three Point range from sandy to rocky beaches. specifically,
the coast between Domini Lagoon, Amunsure Lagoon and Essiama Beach in the west of
Cape Three Point is mainly a sandy beach. This coast is therefore suitable
Environment in which sea turtles can nest during the breeding season. However, the noise is connected with it
This function is threatened in oil and gas exploration activities. Because noise intensity
if it decreases at a distance, it is reasonable for the effects within the network to be more pronounced
immediate operating environment. First the 60km distance between offshore operation and
Tortoise nesting sites may be too far away to consider noise as a threat to the country
Ecology. The associated helicopter flights, export tankers and the frequent supply trips
Ships between Takoradi and the jubilee field are sufficient to generate such a noise level
negative impact on offshore and onshore ecosystem functions. These areas again
provide an opportunity to develop Ghana’s tourism industry specifically for those interested
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Observation of hatched turtles and migratory marine mammals. But such an opportunity cannot be
realized as part of the current oil and gas exploration and production in the region.
There are currently no regulations or guidelines for noise reduction in seismic surveys in Ghana
and operations. The project’s EIA states that the oil producing company (Tullow oil) will do so
Develop and enforce specific policies and procedures to ensure that the traffic and operations of
Drillships, auxiliary ships and helicopters minimize interference for marine mammals.
For example, ships are not allowed to target marine mammals and where
is practical, changes course or reduces speed to further limit the potential for interference or
Collision “. However, the specific guidelines and procedures are not explicit and, incidentally, the EIA
came late (about 2 years after the discovery) so any influence associated with seismic surveys was possible
have already occurred.
4.3.1.2 Physical destruction
Another ecological influence of the offshore oil and gas industry results from the loss of the habitat
and biodiversity due to the construction and installation of underwater infrastructure. Such
Systems not only destroy habitats directly, but also lead to suspended particles
which either suffocate certain species or can lead to secondary effects through constipation
Respiratory system of certain fish species. Finally, habitat destruction of certain species
would potentially reduce the availability of prey and indirectly affect their predators. It is obviously that
regardless of how small the area of the plant may be in relation to the total area of
The loss of biodiversity and habitats in any quantity continues to have an impact on economic activity
Marine Ecology. In fact, such losses can force species like pelagic fish to travel further
Distances from local canoeists.
4.3.1.3 Operation initiation and emissions
The exploration and production of the anniversary field entails many operational outflows, including
Drilling chips, drilling fluids, air emissions, waste water and solid waste. These result in the
Release of toxic and harmful substances into the coastal water. Although some of them
Discharges and emissions damage the recipient’s ecosystem and biodiversity and their effects
may not be immediately noticeable, as can be seen from a large oil spill. Underwood and Peterson
(1988) found that sublethal effects affect chronic long-term disorders
Organisms, the population frequency of the estimated species and the ability to maintain supply with
Ecosystem goods and services in the future becomes particularly problematic.
4.3.1.3.1 Drill drilling chips and drilling fluids
The first discharges associated with the first blow order involve the release of drill chips
and drilling fluids in the exploration drilling phase. Basically two types of drilling fluids are used
Ghana’s Oil and Gas Exploration and Production: (1) Water Based Liquids (WBF) and (2)
aqueous drilling fluids (NADFs). In a single well, the WBFs are used the first time you drill
Stages (to a depth of about 700 m or 1100 m) and the NADFs follow as soon as the well comes
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Deeper. The usual practice with WBFs is to drain the drilling mud to the sea floor.
Drilling fluids, particularly the NADFs, are typically refurbished and reused in the boreholes
such a time that it cannot be used continuously. The NADFs are then treated and submitted
Country. When drilling, however, these liquids eventually mix with the drilling chips
which are released into the ocean floor. In certain circumstances, the introductions occur
Water surfaces that mean more chemicals and sediments are suspended in coastal water.
Most of these drilling fluids, particularly the NADFs, contain very high aromatic compounds
harmful to the recipient’s ecosystem and biodiversity. The advantage of using the NADFs is:
its ability to give fewer drilling problems and efficient drilling.
Despite the fact that most oil industries do not associate toxicity with WDFs, Godmother (1999)
argues that the WDFs can still harm marine life. Aside from the issue of toxicity,
Water-based sludge deposited on seabed sediments can suffocate benthic animals
The form of very fine particles suspended in water can disrupt breathing in small quantities
Marine animals and pelagic fish. Small (pellet) fractions gradually spread over long distances.
Particles smaller than 0.01 mm can slide in the water column for weeks and months. As a
As a result, large zones of increased turbidity are created around drilling platforms. These phenomena
construction of underwater pipelines is taking place to an even greater extent
artificial islands, dredging and some other activities that accompany offshore oil
Production processes. At the same time, the increased turbidity can pose a certain risk. The
Persistent flags of increased turbidity disrupt the balance of production and destruction processes
in the superficial (photic) layer of sea water. It can also cause disruption at the ecosystem level.
According to Shparkovski (1993) a short-term increase in the concentration of the pellet suspension
(Particles with a size of 0.005-0.01 mm) above the level of 2-4 grams per liter quickly causes
Side effects and death of salmon, cod and amphipods.
According to Patin (1999), a common drilling mud additive is used as the ferrochrome lignosulfonate
A thinner and deflocculant has reported effects on fish survival and physiological responses
Eggs and roasts; The filtration control additive CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose) can lead to death
Fish fry in high concentrations (1,000-2,000 mg / l) and physiological changes at 12-50 mg / l,
This was not observed at the low concentrations (1 to 20 mg / l) used in standard chronic tests
Effects. Other additives used as defoamers, decalcifiers, thinners, viscosity improvers, lubricants,
Stabilizers, surfactants and corrosion inhibitors have reported effects on marine organisms.
from minor physiological changes to reduced fertility, lower feeding rates and higher
Mortality as a function of concentration.
The general view of drilling muds as disclosed in the Paris Convention is based on the fact that they
are not easily degradable or made harmless by natural processes; and they can either
cause dangerous accumulation of pollutants in the food chain, (b) endanger the environment
disrupt the well-being of living organisms that cause undesirable changes in marine ecosystems (c)
serious about seafood harvesting or other legitimate uses of the sea; and (d) included
one or more of these pollutants, which urgently require measures: organohalogen compounds and
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Substances that can form such compounds in the marine environment, mercury and mercury
Compounds, cadmium and cadmium compounds, persistent synthetic materials, persistent oils
and hydrocarbons from petroleum. Apparently, these components would not only have an impact
This has a negative impact on marine ecology, but also has great potential for consequential damage
especially for the health of Ghana’s coastal residents.
4.3.1.3.2 Water discharges
The water discharges can come from: (a) Routine sources: black water, gray water and food
Waste (from FPSO and MODUs); Deck drainage and bilge water; water produced (b) not routinely
Discharges: occasional discharge of ballast water (from export tankers), hydraulic fluid
Underwater valve activation, completion fluids and occasional drainage of treatment fluids (from
MODUs) and chemically treated hydrotest water from the underwater infrastructure during
Installation and commissioning. Like the drilling mud, these discharges contain a significant amount
Amount of hydrocarbons, heavy metals and arsenic that can affect the marine ecosystem. To the
This is how Neff (1987) described the water produced for ocean discharge with a content of up to 48
Parts per million (ppm) petroleum because it has typically come in contact with petroleum
Reservoir rocks. There were also increased concentrations of barium, beryllium, cadmium,
Chromium, copper, iron, lead, nickel, silver and zinc as well as “small amounts of the natural”
Radionucleids, radium226 and radium228 (of which “very little” has been bound to nearby)
Sediments) and “up to several hundred ppm of non-volatile dissolved organic material from
unknown composition “. He added that” in shallow, cloudy waters increased concentrations of
Hydrocarbons can be detected in near-surface sediments up to 1000 m from the drain. ”
and that the aromatic hydrocarbons and metals in the water produced were toxic; “the toxicity of the
soluble organic fraction of the water produced is not known. “It is obvious that the organic fraction
of water produced can induce eutrophication and thereby influence the biological oxygen demand
(BSB). Such a situation can gradually change from a local problem to a regional,
national and cross-border problems, especially if the project field is near the coast
Border of La Cote d’Ivoire.
An obvious pollution related to maritime traffic is the release of ballast water
in the coastal ecosystem. These waters usually contain animals and plants that are accidentally
hitchhiking by boat from one part of the world to another. The transported plant and
Animal species usually have no natural predators in their new locations, so they reproduce
quickly and can become ecological pests. With the oil and gas production and export,
Maritime traffic in Ghana’s coastal waters will inevitably increase with such problems. ON
a typical example is the Eurasian zebra mussel ( Dreissena polymorpha ) in North America
Great Lakes, resulting in billions of dollars in research, control operations and the
Treatment of dirty underwater structures and water pipes (Kloff and Wicks, 2004). In view of
With such enormous costs in combating such pests, Ghana has the ability to deal with this threat
miserably inadequate. This has a greater adverse impact on the functioning of coastal ecosystems.
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The situation can also have an indirect impact on other sectors of the economy as money is spent
The control of these pests could be better used to strengthen other sectors.
4.3.1.3.3 Air emissions
The emissions from the Jubilee Field project are likely to come from MODU operation
Well additions (exhaust emissions from electricity generation); FPSO operations (power generation
Exhaust emissions and non-routine flaring); Naval auxiliary ships and helicopters (motor vehicles)
Exhaust emissions of generation); Filling, unloading and operating of export tankers (exhaust and
volatile emissions); and dust from increased traffic and dry handling of dry goods.
These emissions consist of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), sulfur oxides (SOx),
Methane (CH 4 ), non-methane volatile organic compounds (VOC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
NOx emissions contribute to eutrophication, acidification and soil formation
Ozone and lead to higher background concentrations of NO 2 . Non-methane hydrocarbons
Emissions in combination with NOx lead to ozone formation, CO 2 and CH 4 can contribute to this
to global warming. The SOx and the NOx can chemically react in the atmosphere
generate several secondary contaminants such as sulfuric and nitric acid. These impurities
as acid rain get into the soil and the sea and thus affect the fauna and flora of the sea
Region.
The effects of acid rain would not only be felt in the marine ecosystem, but also on land
Ecology, especially the Ankasa nature reserve where the Nini Suhien national lives
Park and the Ankasa Resource Reserve. The reserve covers an area of approximately 500 km
2
and it is
within the removal of pollution deposits from the oil and gas exploration of the anniversary field. The
The nature reserve is considered the most forested in terms of the country’s botanical diversity. Among the
The biodiversity includes about 300 plant species per hectare, forest elephants, bongo,
Primates including endangered Diana monkeys, birds of about 263 species registered. As such, it is
attracts researchers and tourists all year round, making it one of the most important foreign exchange earners.
However, these ecosystem services are severely endangered by over 20 years of environmental pollution
Oil and gas exploration. The situation is worrying given Ghana and the
In Sahara Africa there is no model like the European Regional Atmospheric Information
Simulation (RAINS). In this case, the impact of such pollution on the Ivory Coast ecosystems
is not determined, but can be catastrophic. Such a situation tends to create
cross-border political tension.
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Figure 8: Entrance to the Ankasa Conservation Area, western region of Ghana. Source : www.ghanaexpeditions.com
4.3.1.3.4 Solid waste discharge
The Jubilee Field project is expected to generate both hazardous and non-hazardous solid waste.
According to Tullow Oil’s estimates, about 100 tons and 200 tons, respectively
It is expected that hazardous and non-hazardous waste is generated annually. The dangerous
Waste includes oily waste, lubricants; Wash off the tank sludge; chemicals; glue;
Paint, thinner, paint cans; batteries; Rubber; fluorescent tubes; Filter; and medical waste. They don’t
hazardous solid waste can consist of plastic packaging; Kitchen waste; Paper and cardboard;
Glass; Wood; Household waste. This waste is expected to be transported ashore
proper treatment and disposal. Considering the costs associated with transportation and
When disposing of such waste, industries often prefer to grind and dispose of the organic material
on site. In addition, the waste treatment facilities in the western region are completely inadequate.
For example, municipal landfills are still used and not properly controlled.
While these landfills are generally intended for non-industrial and non-hazardous solid waste, this is the case
It is more likely that most of this solid waste from oil and gas exploration would end up there.
Ideally, some low organic waste, such as B. drilling chips, be suitable
Treatment by biological or other means of waste treatment (e.g. on land). Other wastes with little
The level of contamination may be appropriate for landfilling hazardous waste. Currently there, however
are no hazardous waste landfills, no chemical waste treatment plants and no thermal
treatment facilities other than basic medical waste combustion chambers in some Takoradi hospitals
and in Ghana as a whole. When this industrial waste ends up in municipal landfills
They can be drained and contaminate the surrounding ecosystems. The risks include the acidification of
مساعدة التعيين – خدمة كتابة المقالات من قبل كبار الكتاب العرب, Arable land, soil and surface water pollution, human exposure to harmful pollutants, flora
and contamination of the fauna and a possible bioaccumulation of harmful pollutants in this flora
and fauna.
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4.3.1.4 Oil pollution
Based on the coastal ecology around Cape Three Point (sandy and rocky shores) in the
In the event of oil pollution, the marine organisms that inhabit or occasionally use these ecosystems
would be very concerned. These organisms include turtles, crabs, mussels and gastropods
in the sandy shores and macro algae, barnacles and littorinid snails in the rocky shores.
From an ecological point of view, the algae mats serve as micro-habitats for the epifauna (crustaceans and invertebrates).
and fish (Armah et al., 2004).
A stochastic model developed by Reynolds et al. (2009) was carried out to assess the potential sea gas oil
and crude oil pours from the jubilee field in Deep Water Tano and West Cape Three
Blocks of dots showed that “the area of potential impact varies with the size of the spilled liquid,
The maximum length of the footprint is 40 km for marine gas pollution of 10 km
Tons for more than 600 km for crude oil accidents of 1000 tons or more or. About 200-300 km
It has been found that there is a risk of oiling on the coast as there is a risk of major pollution
more coastline. The coast with the highest chance of being oiled was the 100 km long
west of Cape Three Points. Could be east of Cape Three Points, a longer coastline
may be oiled, but the oil’s chance was generally less than 10 percent.
Considering the total distance from Ghana’s coast about 550 km from the border with Cote
Ivory Coast on the Togo border: the worst oil spill scenario could disguise the whole country
Shoreline. In the case of the Exxon Valdez, the oil traveled approximately 1,000 km from the construction site
from the spill, and ended around 1400 miles of coastline oil. This implies the numerous
All ecosystem services provided along the Ghanaian coast are at risk. Among the
Important ecosystems on the shores of Ghana are coastal lagoons, estuaries and mangroves.
Armah et al (2004) revealed that “there are more than 90 lagoons along the entire coast
Ghana and that includes about 26 open lagoons. The open lagoons are usually in the middle
and west coast that encompasses the Cape Three Point area. These lagoons serve as habitats
for a variety of fish, shrimp, molluscs and crab species and they also serve as breeding grounds for
These organisms are particularly suitable for juvenile fish and shrimp. These are economical
Lagoons are a source of income for local fishermen. In addition, some lagoons hibernate
Locations for Palaearctic birds and resting places for local waterfowl (Armah et al., 2004). five
Of the lagoons, the areas known as Ramsar are Sakumo, Densu, Muni-Pomadze, Keta and
Songor. However, these locations are quite far from the jubilee field, a worst scenario for oil pollution
could affect all of these areas.
The effects of oil spills on the Ghanaian coastal ecosystem depend on a number of factors. This
may include the type and amount of oil spilled and its behavior; the physical properties
the affected area; Weather conditions and season; Type and effectiveness of the renovation
Answer; the biological and economic characteristics of the area and their sensitivity to oil
Pollution. The typical effects of an oil spill range from toxicity (especially for light oils and products)
to suffocate (heavier oils and weathered residues). The effects of oil spills on marine species
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may include: a) Damage to the digestive tract and other organs from digestion / absorption of
Oil in contaminated food (b) inflammation and infection (c) contamination of eggs leads to
poor breeding success (d) catching newly hatched turtles that lead to death.
4.3.2 Socio-economic impact of the anniversary field project
The exploration and production of the jubilee field in the oil and gas sector has many indirect impacts
the coastal residents who are of socio-economic characteristics. Among them are:
4.3.2.1 Fisheries
One of the ecosystem services derived from Ghana’s coastal waters is food that is primarily produced in the United States
Form of fish. Therefore, fishing is the main source of employment for the coastal population.
However, restrictions around the anniversary field concession zone mean denying access to it
Fischer. This, together with pollution (from drilling mud), has led to an increase in maritime traffic and oil
Spills from the project have an enormous negative impact on the catch volume of fish.
In a study of the Barents Sea, Engas et al. (1993) that when shooting seismic cannons
Catches in the shooting area decreased by 60% and in the other areas (up to 18 km from the
Exploration area) decreased by 45-50%. Fishing quotas did not recover over the next 5 days
filming ended. Longline fishing in the exploration area decreased 45%, but the decline
was smaller with increasing distance from the exploration area; without reducing the catch
Distances over 16-18 nautical miles.
In Ghana, fish is the most important and least expensive animal protein source in the country
The average Ghanaian consumes about 60-70% of the total animal protein. ON
A significant part of this fish consumption comes from the country’s marine fisheries
Aquaculture contributes only a small percentage (Armah et al., 2004). It is also estimated that the
The fishing sub-sector employs at least 500,000 fishermen, processors, traders, mechanics and boats
Builders who together support twice as many addicts. Bannerman et al. (2001) reported about it
On the west coast alone there are 94 landing sites, 2731 canoes and 24358 fishermen.
Given such a dependence on the fishing industry, there is a reduction in the catch volume
Oil and gas exploration tends to create insecurity and unrest due to poverty
generated by the collapse of the fishing industry. Already some representatives of the fishmongers
from the surrounding communities expressed concern about the recent weak fisheries that blamed it
the rigging. Incidentally, the fish seems to have sought protection in areas near the rigging
It is difficult for fishermen to obtain them without suffering from the displeasure of the patrolling navy
Ghana’s territorial waters. According to them, this has resulted in losses, which in turn have
they were no longer able to repay bank loans (Allafrica, 2009).
In the meantime, there is no regulation that gives fishermen access to fishing resources in such areas
Situations. However, Section 93 of the Fisheries Act 625 (2002) requires the Fisheries Commission
be informed about all activities with a significant impact on fishery resources and beyond
Recommendations for minimizing or preventing impacts on fisheries resources. This regulation doesn’t seem
have been followed.
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4.3.2.2 Human health
One of the potential effects of oil and gas exploration in Ghana is the release of
toxic and harmful substances in the environment. Heavy metals from the well and
Production activities contaminate the marine ecosystem, which can lead to possible accumulation in the environment
Marine organisms. Through bioaccumulation, the toxic chemicals enter the food chain and its
The effects in humans may not be immediately noticeable, but chronic. Wild (1996) and population
Reports (2000) indicate that the most dangerous heavy metals in serious human diseases
These include lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, copper, zinc and chrome. Cadmium and arsenic, e.g.
It is reported that they cause cancer, while exposure to lead was reported in a study in Berlin. V3.espacenet.com/textdoc?
In Thailand, around 70,000 children could lose four or more intelligence points
Quotient (1Q) (Population reports, 2000). Similarly, the UNDP (1998) reported that about 15
Millions of children from Latin America under the age of two were at risk from health problems
Lead contamination. These reported pollutants are also released into the environment by oil and gas
Activities. A typical situation for contamination is the lack of toxic waste treatment facilities
in the western region, which targets the open municipal landfill. On the construction site of
Operation in most oil fields is the release of hydrogen sulfide gas (H 2 S) nothing
unusual. This gas is lethal in relatively low concentrations and the effect is instantaneous.
A relatively short-term exposure to 500-1000 ppm can be life-threatening and have serious consequences
Damage from repeated exposure to lower concentrations causes conjunctivitis, photophobia,
Corneal bull, tearing, pain, and vision problems.
Despite the direct illness associated with the oil and gas industry, there are others
caused indirectly by industry. For example, the western region of Ghana is set to attract a
Number of people from all walks of life looking for a job. Included in this group of migrants
are sex workers. This group of people is likely to increase the prevalence of HIV AIDS and
other sexually transmitted diseases in the region. Drug addiction is also likely to increase in the EU
Region, as such a situation has characterized similar oil / gas producing cities / municipalities
in the whole world. The situation in Ghana may be more worrying due to the shortcomings in Ghana
Law enforcement and poor skills or facilities to deal with such threats.
4.3.2.3 Social pressure and other secondary effects
An increase in the local population as a result of the migration to employment opportunities means additional things
Pressure on schools, hospitals and leisure facilities. In addition, the situation has one
Tendency to the emergence of urban slums due to poor planning. A typical example is Gabon
Shell Oil ‘s activities served as a catalyst for the creation and development of
the viol city. Here the situation has led to interventions in the nearby bush meat forest
limited agriculture; This destroys biodiversity. In Ghana’s situation, an increment in local
The population, especially in Takoradi and Sekondi, will need accommodation
to care for the teeming population. Such a situation can lead to vegetation being cleared for them
Projects, but not without environmental impacts. A typical example can already be seen in the
Mining communities of Obuasi and Tarkwa, for which huge fertile areas have been cleared
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Construction projects for miners. The western region is now home to one of the richest
Nature reserves, Ankasa, therefore an intervention of any size would be negative
Consequences for biodiversity.
The discovery of oil and gas is likely to create vibrant economic life in Takoradi and Japan
Sekondi cities. Such a situation can in particular trigger a corresponding increase in road traffic
between Accra and Takoradi-Sekondi. At the moment there are a number of notorious roads in
Ghana has been identified along the Accra-Cape Coast-Takoradi highway. These areas include
the Winneba-Kasoa-Accra road that joins the main road of Accra-Takoradi. As a matter of fact,
An increase in road traffic only increases the likelihood of a traffic accident. That must not be
the situation on the highways alone, but also in the cities of Takoradi and Sekondi. In the case
Because traffic pressure is localized within cities, it may be necessary to build new roads
essential. However, such constructions also cause environmental costs, especially when it comes to systems
cleared to pave the way for road construction.
Another indirect effect can result from a shift in employment from agriculture to oil-related jobs
due to salary differences. The western region is currently the leading producer of cocoa, oil
Palm and rubber for export and local consumption. Most of the country’s food for
local consumption comes from the region. From this point of view there is a reduction in agricultural
The workforce will affect not only the local food supply, but also the country’s income
Foreign exchange especially when the effects on commercial crop production are noticeable.
4.4 Analysis of Ghana’s ability to deal with oil and gas threats
Industry
Ghana’s efforts to protect the environment are manifested in the founding of the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) since 1994 with powers to regulate activities within
the environment. As already explained in section 4.2, the number of legal framework conditions for the
The sharing of fisheries and the protection of ecosystems could help to avert the extreme effects of oil
and gas exploration if implemented well. Administratively the nature of the country’s environment
Governance is more a top-down approach. As such, is the basic political tool
“Command and Control” approach, which includes compliance with laws (ordinances),
Environmental standards and guidelines. Because of this, the EPA has been around since its inception
Use the environmental impact assessment administrative procedures as the main tool to achieve this
Compliance with its legislation. As part of the procedure: (a) new developments are to be registered
the EPA, carry out an environmental assessment of their proposals and submit an environmental assessment
Evaluation report to the EPA for review. There are evaluation levels depending on
Type, scope and location of the activity. Environmental permit is granted for development
Start when the EPA is satisfied with the assessment and mitigation measures (b)
Sectors that exist before legislation have to do an environmental review of their
Propose ways and means to improve the performance of your facilities.
These environmental management plans are then submitted to the EPA for review. The
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The commitments entered into by the management of the facilities must be implemented and the goals set
achieved within three years, after which another plan must be submitted. The new industrial
UPSs must follow this procedure even after 18 months of operation (c)
They were also asked to provide the Commission with monthly feedback on their monitored environmental parameters
EPA. Comments are also expected in cases where values exceed certain limits and what
There are measures to check the discrepancy
Environmental report to the agency stating the environmental performance,
What has been achieved, what went wrong and what needs to be done? The EPA then measures
Compliance with environmental regulations based on the number of requests received for environmental issues
allowed within a certain time frame.
The objectives of these laws are justified and relevant to the needs of the coastal environment
and society as a whole. However, the inputs are in terms of human resources, capacity and finance
The resources needed to achieve these goals are limited and insufficient. By doing
In the following section I deal with the appropriateness of the current environmental guidelines in Ghana and how
They are enforced and monitored.
4.4.1 Ghanaian environmental standards and guidelines
Major’s existing guidelines on air quality in Ghana have been carefully drafted
International environmental standards and guidelines make the Ghanaian standards quite robust
(see Appendix 1). World health is one of these international standards
Organization (WHO), International Finance Company (IFC) and MARPOL guidelines
Convention. However, the guidelines lag behind the guidelines of the World Health Organization
are apparently more robust than the USA, especially for the pollutants SO 2 , NOx and PM 10 .
Considering the American medical records, living standards and experience in the oil industry
It would have been more logical to expect a stricter standard from the United States. But despite
There are still problems with the impressive numbers of the Ghanaian air quality guidelines
especially when the ambient temperature is used as a measure for the exploration and production of oil and gas. Where
Measurements should be made relative to the emission point, this is not a question at the moment
the guidelines for air quality in Ghana There is no further distinction
for on-site and off-site measurements; but the oilfield workers and coastal residents are
exposed to different environmental concentrations daily at different times. The lack of such
Regulations have a serious impact on data collection and monitoring, which could be easy
exploited to the benefit of oil and gas companies.
Another worrying situation in Ghana is the existence of wastewater standards, but the absence of
Emission standards specifically for aerosols. Also with the waste water standards for the discharge into
Water still has a problem with how certain measurements should be taken. To the
For example, the guidelines stipulate that the wastewater temperature must not increase the ambient temperature
Temperature of the reception area around 3
Ö
C, but it’s not explicit enough in terms of distance
or edge of the zone in which the measurements are to be carried out in relation to the discharge point.
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Obviously, a few feet from the discharge point would have higher temperatures than a few
Meters away. However, the IFC proposes an edge 100 m from the unloading point
Situations where the edge is undefined.
Given the issues above: undefined environmental policies on site and off site,
Lack of emission standards, unclear definitions of how measurements should be carried out; I
consider Ghana’s guidelines to be insufficient to deal with the environmental threats posed by the EU
Offshore oil and gas development.
The MARPOL Convention deals with issues of coastal pollution and sets guidelines for marine pollution
Management of waste water or discharges from ships. Ghana is a signatory to MARPOL
The Convention has so far ratified the first two mandatory annexes, ie the regulations for the
Prevention of oil pollution (Annex I) and regulations to control pollution from pollutants
Liquids in bulk (Annex II). These should help reduce ship-related pollution
Offshore oil and gas activities in strict compliance with the guidelines. But Ghana has that
the last four annexes have not yet been ratified: prevention of pollution from
Packaged lake (Annex III) , prevention of waste water from ships (Annex IV) ,
Prevention of pollution from ship waste (Annex V) and prevention of air pollution from
Ships (Annex VI) ; It is still unclear how the oil and gas exploration companies intend to use them
the last four annexes dealing with garbage, sewage and air pollution from ships, as in the
Environmental declaration of the oil and gas exploration company (Tullow Oil).
4.4.2 Law enforcement
Ghana’s EPA has two subdivisions, the Environmental Inspectorate and Legal
Divisions of the agency that are merged to meet non-compliance
Regulation. However, as always, the problem was “command and control” as a guideline
Instrument, the implementation gap was the biggest challenge for the country. Therefore
Regardless, the nation has failed to adequately enforce and monitor regulations. The existence of
Implementation gaps in Ghana are attributed to the fact that compliance is timely
complex and expensive. It also requires capacity building (law enforcement agencies), huge
Resources, coordination, clear responsibilities and political will. The nation could
Hardly done so far and in this matter most projects are not subject to the strictest procedures
as required by the regulation. For example section 92 of the Fishery Act 625 (2002)
prohibits water pollution that can adversely affect aquatic resources. The law,
In Section 93 in particular, it is mandatory for the Fisheries Commission to be informed
Activities that are expected to have a significant impact on fisheries resources before the
Activity. The Fisheries Commission then has the right to request reports and recommendations from
the advocate about the likely impact of the activity and possible means of prevention or
Minimize adverse effects that are considered when planning activities.
In addition, the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance of 1999 (LI 1652) applies in the environmental field
The Protection Act (Law 490 of 1994) prescribes an environmental impact assessment (UVP)
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Process. In particular, all activities in which environmental damage is expected
The environment must first be subjected to an environmental assessment and approval must be given
Start of activity. So by law, Ghana Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
could not have given permission for oil and gas exploration or the construction of oil and gas
Separation, processing, handling and storage facilities without submission by the company
a regulatory environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA); nor the
Companies have managed to carry out their activities without meeting the requirement. Important for
Note that exploration drilling and other related activities off the Ghanaian coast started in 2000
2007. One statement: “Everyone admits that the companies (oil and gas exploration companies) have
did not submit a full ESIA to the government ’’ by Bretton Woods (2009) in early 2009
perhaps better confirms this claim. Finally, if the environmental impact assessment (EIA)
When arriving in July / August 2009, information on important environmental and social aspects was missing.
This situation is the first legal error that somehow gave priority to companies
do their job with impunity. The essence of this problem could be that
The fact that economic (monetary) advantages were given priority over ecological and social ones
Considerations about this project. However, endanger the environment and
social considerations also have serious negative economic impacts that can lead to them
Conflicts with local stakeholders. In the end, the conflicts can be economically more expensive
than the monetary benefits derived from it.
Fishery Acts 625 (2002) Section 92 sanctioned at least $ 50,000 and $ 2 million
Maximum penalties for each person who directly or indirectly introduces harmful ones
Substances get into fishing waters. However, this has been quite a deterrent since the law came into force
No person or company was found guilty. Companies now
continue to pollute water and the environment as a whole. A typical example can be seen in
The gold mining companies that continuously pollute the waters do not have to face legal charges.
With this in mind, it may be reasonable to conclude that a similar situation will arise
also in oil and gas exploration.
4.4.3 Monitoring
The Ghana National Petroleum Corporation Act (Law 64 of 1983) empowers GNPC
Effective monitoring of the activities of the oil company and the imposition of sanctions by the minister
for energy. The law empowers the GNPC to its officers during all phases of
Operations. Similarly, the law provides that the GNPC customs officers for the
Production plants and production platforms for monitoring dosing and production processes
Check oil and gas quantities that have been extracted and extracted. Before oil is lifted and taken out of sale
The customs officials have to certify the quantity and quality of the crude oil. The
The monitoring provisions in this law relate more to the assessment of production quantities and
Qualities of crude oil and not much relevant to the environment. Through the environment
According to the 1999 Valuation Ordinance (LI 1652), industrial companies are required to submit monthly statements for the valuation
their environmental parameters to the EPA, they are asked to submit annually
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Environmental report to the agency. This is where the companies themselves should talk about their
Derivatives, it is not certain that the correct numbers (exact parameters) are submitted. Besides none
Visiting the corrugator on site must be agreed with the company. It kind of gives way
signals to companies to arrange things properly or to cover up problems before the visit.
In a way, the IFC didn’t help on environmental issues related to Ghana’s anniversary either
Project are affected. For example, the IFC is required to require compliance
before funding businesses. The international recommendation is:
Oil and gas exploration plans and plans to protect the marine environment should be
developed as part of the national sustainability strategies as recommended in Rio
(1992) and Johannesburg (2002), World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD).
However, it is surprising that the oil companies somehow managed to get loans from the
IFC even if the EIA was not yet finished. Such a practice is definitely against the ethics of
International communities and occupations are blurring in international oversight of large projects
Environmental concerns.
4.5 Recommendations for minimizing the effects of Ghanaian oil and gas
exploration
Based on this study, the following recommendations are suggested to protect the environment
and socio-economic impact of offshore oil and gas exploration and production in Ghana:
4.5.1 Short-term measures
As part of the project, detailed basic data on the availability of wild animals must be created
Area. Data is currently scattered across the literature, but basic information could help reduce costs.
Benefit analysis, especially if the effects are to be assessed monetarily. Such data too
could help with future investigations.
There is also a need to monitor and investigate the reduction in fishing volume, particularly that
Comparison of the phases before and after the project. This will help to assess the real impact on fisheries
Industry, so that appropriate measures can be taken to minimize the impact on fishermen.
Environmental data on oil and gas exploration and production should also be available
made public. In other words, information should be freely assessable. That should be
legally binding for all oil and gas exploration companies.
In addition, overflighting of nature reserves should be avoided in order to avoid noise pollution
to birds. If this is necessary to fly over these areas, the prescribed altitude restrictions apply
should be applied. This is important because the estuaries along the Cape Three Coast are common
used by birds. The Ankasa protected area is also not far from the operational area.
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Finally, in seismic surveys, licensees should be required to implement an earthquake reduction policy
Risk of hearing trauma in marine mammals and sea turtles. The policy should be the
following provisions:
soft start – Every time the use of the seismic array is initiated, a “soft start” is executed
should be used to give marine mammals and turtles time to move away from before
Array achieves full performance. The process should start with the smallest source in an array
and slowly build up over 20 to 40 minutes
Überwachung Visual monitoring – starts at least 30 minutes before the daylight starts.
Visual observers should monitor a security zone (exclusion zone) with a radius of 500 m around them
Source ship. The start of the array can only begin when the safety zone is free of sea freight
Mammals and turtles for at least 20 minutes
Shutting Down the Array – Visual surveillance of the sea surface should continue while the
The seismic array is operated in daylight and the array should be shut down when a
During the visual surveillance, whales, monk seals or sea turtles enter the security zone.
4.5.2 Long-term measures
One of the problems identified in this work is the lack of ability of the Ghanaian government to do so
Enforcement and monitoring of environmental standards and guidelines. This situation is attributed to that
The fact that there is a hierarchical type of environmental governance and authority for this task
(Enforcement and monitoring) remains in the hands of the environmental protection authority. But
The billion dollar oil companies can easily corrupt the WPA employees. So to act as a pipe
Blowers there is a need to strengthen the various non-governmental environments
Organizations (eNGOs) in Ghana to conduct their own on-site research to verify this
any wrongdoing by the EPA. The traditional councils in the affected areas should also be there
monitoring and reporting on the effectiveness of environmental management plans.
The governments of the West African marine and coastal eco-region could also do this
Concept of a comprehensive regional agreement for offshore oil production. This convention
should reflect the specific needs of the region and the vulnerability of the local ecosystem.
Involving a wide range of stakeholders is critical to setting regional standards. An inhabitant
A council that brings together representatives of key stakeholders can give governments one
practical framework for an effective stakeholder consultation (Kloff and Wicks, 2004)
This thesis states that some fishermen have to lose their livelihood due to the poor livelihood
Fishing activities associated with oil and gas exploration. To minimize such effects
Oil and gas companies must assume social responsibility on the coastal population
Agreements with their catchment areas. This can include a branch in Germany
Aquaculture and other income-generating activities to keep these people busy.
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There is also a need to set up a citizens’ council as it is currently practiced
Alaska. To a certain extent, this corresponds to the international recommendation of the government and oil
Industries actively involve important stakeholders to deal with complex environmental problems
Problems. The Citizens’ Council is a participatory approach to offshore development where
It is deliberately trying to gain valuable information on how it works, vulnerability and security
Management of the marine ecosystem. Stakeholders can include fishermen, tourism companies,
Scientists and conservationists. In Alaska, members of the council participate
Making procedures an important role in law enforcement. All members have guaranteed access
Oil factories and have to finance independently from the oil companies
Assessments, environmental monitoring and the hiring of independent expertise. Such a practice in Ghana
can avoid many of the mistakes made in the past, especially with most oil-rich ones
African countries.
Finally, to avoid long-term cross-border pollution problems with neighboring countries
the need to initiate the process of creating pollutant deposition models, e.g. RAINS
Reason in the West Africa region. This is important in view of the increase in oil and gas
Exploration activities in the Gulf of Guinea. There is currently oil and gas
Exploration activities on the coast of Cote Dívoire, Nigeria, Ghana, Gabon and Angola. Lots
Nations still need to join the exploration race that could trigger massive air pollution
Problem within the region.
4.5.3 A summary of the impacts and recommendations
Table 2 below summarizes pressures or problems in oil and gas exploration and
existing regulatory measures and proposed mitigation measures.
Table 2: Pollutants / pollution, applicable regulations and proposed measures
problem
A hit
description
Existing regulation
measure up
Proposed reduction
Dimensions
Earthquake and
operational
noise
Auditory trauma too
marine mammals
and sea turtles
(including
endangered,
critical
endangered and
endangered species)
There are no regulations
Licensees should be required
to implement policies that
should include soft start
visual surveillance and closed
Engine failure.
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problem
Impact Description Existing regulation
measure up
Proposed reduction
Dimensions
ship discharges
including
water produced,
Ballast water
bilge water
Effects on the water
influencing quality
biodiversity
MARPOL compliance.
Also drainage
Guidelines are available.
There are no mitigation measures
proposed
air pollution
emissions
Effects of air
quality
MARPOL Compliance
but Ghana doesn’t have it yet
ratified Annex VI
There are no mitigation measures
proposed
Physically
disorders
Disorders too
Seabed as a result of
Drilling and
Installations. effects
on deep-water corals
and benthos
ecosystems
There are no regulations
Oil and gas companies
should be required to
Rate project area for
Deepwater corals and
chemosynthetic communities
Licensees should too
maintain a separation
Distance of at least 100 m
between any potential
Deepwater Coral or
chemosynthetic communities
and every seabed
Disorders (including
Anchoring) within the
Activity footprint
Drill
discharges
including drills
Mud and cuttings
suffocating effects
on deep-water corals
and benthos
ecosystem
There are no regulations
Explore oil and gas
Companies should be
required to evaluate the project
Area for the potential presence of
Deepwater corals and
chemosynthetically
Communities and maintain a
Distance of 500 m
from any drilling drains
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problem
Impact Description Existing regulation
measure up
Proposed reduction
Dimensions
support
activities
helicopter
operations
There is no regulation
Flying over nature reserve
Areas should be avoided
To prevent interference
Birds. If necessary
it is flown over
Areas, then a required field
Flight altitude limits should
be applied.
oil spill
Impact depends on
the quantity but the
Effects can be:
poor water quality;
Death or injury from
Marine mammals,
Turtles and birds;
Contamination of
Coastal habitats
including beaches;
and disorders
with fishing,
Shipping, recreation,
and tourism during
Answer and
cleanup
MARPOL compliance.
Appendix I requires
Oil pollution on board
emergency plan
A comprehensive oil spill
Trajectory modeling should
be done to help
Understanding the fate of one
Oil pollution in different places
in the license area the
possibly affected
Environmental resources and
minimal response times.
H 2 S release
Possible death or
Injury to people on
Offshore facilities
and adjacent waters;
possible death or
Injury to wild animals
including birds
air quality
Guidelines exist (cf.
Annex 1)
Licensees should be required
Submit information about
expected H 2 S contents for
potential drilling sites ..
Where there is a significant
Risk of encountering H 2 S
during operation, licensee
should be required to submit
an H 2 S emergency plan
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problem
effect Description
Existing regulation
measure up
Proposed reduction
Dimensions
Shipping and
restricted access e.g.
the rigging
Possible conflicts
with fishing or
Shipping operations
Fisheries Act 625
(2002) requires that
fishing
Be commission
informed about it
Activities with
significant impact on
Fisheries resources.
Explore oil and gas
Companies should
have regularly
Consultations with the
local fishermen like
to address their
Concerns. On
Foundation of
citizens’ advice
Local council could help
overcome this
Problem.
Cross-border
issues
Impact on connected
Ecosystems within the
Coast of the Gulf of
Guinea.
Cross-border air
pollution problems
Ghana is a party to
1972 Stockholm
Convention. The
Principle 21 prevented
cross-border
Pollution.
Long-term
measure that
Governments of the
West African Navy
and coastal ecoregion
could do that
Concept of a
full
regional convention
for offshore oil
Development. This
Convention should
reflect the specific
Needs of the region
and vulnerability
of the local
Ecosystem.
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5. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
5.1 Uncertainties
This thesis is mainly based on secondary data, but probably not on all relevant data
Research has been received. The literature search showed that there are currently no emissions
Standards and guidelines in Ghana apart from the existing air quality and the available wastewater
Guidelines. The literature acquired also shows the lack of measuring zones or peripheries
in terms of how environmental measurements are to be made with respect to the emission point. Maybe,
These documents exist, but simply could not be obtained. Even more, there is currently no
Basic data, in particular on coastal ecosystem services and marine organisms in the region
Cape Three Point waters, where oil and gas exploration is currently taking place. literature
About whales in Ghana and the Gulf of Guinea there are few and the distribution, natural history and
The conservation status of most marine organisms remains unclear. The limited information
Uncertainties that inaccurate analyzes and impact assessments can occur
these organisms. For example, oil and gas exploration activity can be considered minor
Impact, but in reality this could have a significant impact if the organisms in the area were known.
In addition, there is considerable uncertainty in the literature regarding the effects of noise, light,
Discharges and emissions into coastal ecosystems and biodiversity. Different researchers differ
in terms of the amount or intensity of these pollutants which are considered harmful to shipping
Ecosystems and biodiversity. For example, while some researchers consider noise to be harmful
When fishing, others differ due to the lack of hearing organs
5.1.1 Dealing with uncertainties
In order to deal with such uncertainties, data were obtained from various possible sources (triangulation)
Sources), in particular from institutions dealing with environmental regulations. numerous
Literatures were examined and the common opinion of most researchers was represented
considered in this research. There was literature available on Ghana’s emissions standards in Ghana
thoroughly investigated whether there were any quotes or references to Ghana’s emissions standards.
Various expert opinions on this topic and the common opinion of all experts were also obtained
was considered in this work.
5.2 Main conclusion
The aim of this work was to investigate and analyze the possible effects of Ghana’s oil and gas
Exploration and production on the coast. The focus was actually on the effects
Ecosystem services and how they affect the socio-economic situation of coastal residents.
The results presented and discussed in Chapter 4 show that the magnitude of the effects depends on a
Number of factors, including the stage or phase of production, size and complexity
of the project and the sensitivity of the environment. The effectiveness of
Planning and mitigation techniques could either exacerbate or mitigate the impact. On the base
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At the time of occurrence, the effects are divided into first, second and third order in this work
to order.
The main conclusions from this thesis are as follows:
1. Noise, discharges, emissions and physical destruction from oil and gas exploration and
Production has a negative impact on coastal ecosystem services and biodiversity in Ghana
Table 1 shows the exploration phases up to the development and production phase
Pollutants such as noise (sound), CO 2 , CO, SO 2 , NOx, H 2 S, heavy metals; Ba, Cd, Zn,
Pb; Benzene, radioactive materials, sewerage and household waste. These pollutants initially give way
Ascent to the first order of impact and over time the second and third orders may manifest.
It has been shown that the pollutants have an adverse impact on marine biodiversity. To the
For example, most of the tools and equipment associated with oil and gas operations are capable
the generation of noise in a range between 120 and 220 (dB for 1 μPa at 1 m). These values are
Behavioral responses have been reported to be triggered in most marine organisms, especially whales
rely on sound for many functions (see McCauley, 1994). Such behavioral reactions can occur with
long distances from the original place of performance. But it is revealed that the waters of the Cape
Three Point is used as a migration route for most of these marine organisms
Avoidance behavior triggered by oil and gas exploration activities can create a route
Detour. The result is that Ghana (and possibly the entire sub-region including Cote
D I Ivoire) could lose tourism because such a migration route would have been possible
Explored for ecotourism reasons. Other discharges could either have a direct environmental impact
Marine ecosystems or can trigger secondary influences, especially if particles are suspended in them
the water. The remarkable direct impact of discharges is the physical suppression of biodiversity
especially the benthos species as a result of the deposit of drilling chips. Even the physical one
The destruction of the ocean floor can lead to a permanent loss of habitats for the biodiversity of benthos.
Finally, the suspended particles affect the water quality and cause it
Breathing problems with certain species.
2. The exploration and production of oil and gas presents the EU with socio-economic challenges
Residential coastal communities
The FPSO and the MODU bring their own environment together with the increase in maritime traffic
and social challenges. For example, ships cannot import indigenous species over time
can become a cancer that requires huge resources to fight. These facilities also one way
or others disrupt the operation of local fishermen and thereby deny them access
Areas of application and consequently the denial of daily living for these fishermen. Such a
The situation has a tendency to conflict between oil and gas companies and local ones
Residents as most of them make a living from fishing.
In addition, the exploration and production of oil and gas can lead to a prevalence of
Diseases, such as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), due to the fact that the region is at risk
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Attract immigrants and included in this category are sex workers. In areas with similar oils and
Gas exploration and production activities in Africa, sexually transmitted diseases and drug addiction are typically characteristic
The municipalities.
In addition, the region is committed to experiencing a population explosion that may be inappropriate
social tensions such as pressure on schools, hospitals and streets. Such tensions can trigger
secondary effects as large areas of vegetation may need to be cleared to build
more facilities to meet the needs of the local population. Such constructions have meanwhile
negative consequences for ecosystems and biodiversity, especially in the western region
is considered the magnate of biodiversity in Ghana.
As the oil and gas industry becomes attractive, more people are likely to give up fishing and
Agriculture in the region. But these traditional jobs have supported and supported the local communities
has made an enormous contribution to Ghana’s economy for a long time. The abandonment of such jobs could have an impact
negative effects on other sectors of the economy, in particular agriculture and the fishing industry. The
The actual effect may not be immediately noticeable, but will be known after the oil and gas project ends or
shut down. Such a situation requires the need to use oil and gas revenues
develop other industries.
3. Ghana is unable to monitor and enforce environmental compliance
Despite the potential effects of oil and gas development mentioned above, this is clear
In this thesis that Ghana has the appropriate legal framework, but it still has one
existing implementation gap problem related to surveillance and law enforcement. Ghana
till date could not properly enforce environmental compliance due to the problems associated with it
Costs related to capacity building, resource and logistics demand. There are also no clear ones
Areas of responsibility and lack of political will. Such a situation has led to situations in which the
The environmental impact assessment is carried out long after the start of the project. This
The situation is also evident in the current oil and gas exploration and production since
The environmental statement was submitted almost two years after the program
started.
4. The existing environmental guidelines and standards in Ghana are inadequate
the environmental threats from oil and gas exploration and production.
There are currently no aerosol emission standards in Ghana, but they are required if oil and gas are used
exploring companies must take their emissions seriously. They have such emission standards
Advantage of forcing oil and gas exploration companies to choose the best available
Technologies to avoid penalties. The existing air quality guidelines do not
Define on-site and off-site requirements. Just like the wastewater guidelines the environment
Standards are not explicit with regard to the border or the measuring zones. For example, there is another
ask what distance to measure environment.
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5.3 Recommendations
5.3.1 Recommendations to minimize the impact of offshore oil and gas exploration in Ghana
The recommendations to minimize the impact of offshore oil and gas development in Ghana
are already covered in section 4.5. However, they are summarized in the following tables:
Table 3 Short and long-term measures to minimize the impact of oil and gas development in Ghana
5.3.2 Recommendations for further studies
Based on this thesis, the following recommendations are made for further studies:
a) The problems of the environmental impact assessment must be thoroughly examined
(EIA) within the Ghanaian administrative systems. This is necessary because despite the
Existence of mandatory environmental impact assessment pre-start legislation
Projects manage to carry out such an evaluation in the middle of the project cycle.
Until then, it can be too late and costly to end such projects. Maybe the system isn’t
Work.
b) Studies on the effects of oil and gas exploration are required
Production on the entire fishing volume. This can be a comparison of the pre-project catch
Volumes and after-project catch volumes. Such a study is essential to determine the real impact
the local fishing industry and recommendations for avoiding conflict. Also a study
may also be necessary to determine the actual impact on whale route diversions, particularly a
Comparison of before and after the project.
Short-term measures
Long-term measures
Determination of basic data
Empowerment of eNGOs
Investigation to reduce fishing
volumes
Adoption of the regional maritime convention for
Offshore development
Public access to environmental data on the Internet
O&G development
Obligation to agree on social responsibility
with catchment areas
Avoiding or maintaining a duty
Flight altitude over protected areas
Establishment of a citizens’ council
Introduction of a short start , visual surveillance
and shutdown engine policy
Start of a model to deal with
cross-border air pollution problems
Spread of oil exploration activities along
the coast of the Gulf of Guinea.
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(c) These effects must be quantified for a trade-off analysis based on monetary values.
This is necessary because such projects often have a high priority on revenue
be generated. In the meantime, the financial impact on the environment can far outweigh
the revenue.
(d) Further studies should be carried out on the socio-economic impact of the oil and gas project
on local communities and maybe Ghana as a whole. This thesis is not detailed enough
in particular the impact on local businesses, wage differentiation and microeconomic development
Situation of local communities.
(e) Studies on appropriate emission standards for the environment in Ghana are required
Taking into account the sensitivity of Ghana’s ecosystems. There is also a need for one
thorough study to address the uncertainties in performing environmental measurements.
f) Studies should be carried out to start the environmental impact assessment in Ghana
despite insufficient resources, capacities and inputs.
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ATTACHMENTS
Annex 1
Comparison of the guidelines for air quality in Ghana with the most important international guidelines
(Based on WHO, USA and Ghana guidelines)
WHO pollutant
United States
Ghana
SO 2
(μg / m
3
)
20 (24-hour Av.)
365 (24 h av.) 150 (24 h av.) Industrial
100 (24-hour Av.) Residential
NO 2
(μg / m
3
)
40 (annual average)
200 (1h Av.)
100 (annual average) 400 (1-hour average) industry
200 (1 hour) In residential areas
PM 2.5
(μg / m
3
)
10 (annual average)
25 (24-hour Av.)
15 (annual average)
65 (24-hour Av.)
–
–
PM 10
(μg / m
3
)
50 (24-hour average)
150 (24-hour average) 70 (24-hour average)
CO
(mg / m
3
)
10 (8 h av.)
10 (8 h av.)
H 2 S
(μg / m 3
)
150 (24 hours)
0.03 (1 hour)
150 (24 hours)
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Appendix 2
Comparison of the wastewater quality guidelines for discharges into natural waters maximum
Permissible Ghana and IFC values (based on Ghana and IFC guidelines)
pollutant
IFC
Ghana
pH
6-9
6-9
BOD 5 (mg / l)
25
50
COD (mg / l)
125
250
TSS (mg / l)
35
50
Oil and fat
(mg / l)
10
10
Cd (mg / l)
0.1
0.1
Cl
(mg / l)
0.2
–
Cr (mg / l)
0.5
0.5
Cu (mg / l)
0.5
5
Fe (mg / l)
3
10
Zn (mg / l)
1
10
temperature
<3
Ö
C above
ambient level
<3
Ö
C above
ambient level
Pb (mg / l)
0.1
0.1
Ni (mg / l)
1.5
–
Heavy
metals
(Total) (mg / l)
5
–
Phenol (mg / l)
0.5
2
N (mg / l)
40
50
P (mg / l)
3
2
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MSc thesis (ESA)
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Appendix 3
Ambient noise level standards in Ghana (taken from the environmental assessment report of
EPA, Ghana)
pollutant
IFC in dB (A)
Ghana in dB (A)
noise
residential
Time of day (7:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m.): 55
55-65 *
Night time (22: 0007: 00): 45
48-60) *
Industry
Time of day (7:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m.): 70
70-75 *
Night time (22: 0007: 00): 70
65-70 *
* Draft ambient noise standards
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