Posted: February 1st, 2023

Investigating the Synergistic Effects of Retention and Socioeconomic Status on Student Academic Achievement

Abstract

The paper aims at investigating the Synergistic Effects of Retention and Socioeconomic Status on Student Academic Achievement. Summer Lynum, 2015: Applied Dissertation, Nova Southeastern University, Abraham Fischer School of Education. ERIC Descriptors: Academic Achievement, Middle Schools, Educational Policy, Economically Disadvantaged, Socioeconomic Status.

 

Mandatory retention has been a standard practice among schools in the state of Florida. However, the effectiveness of the practice in terms of improving academic achievement among students appears to be inconsistent among empirical reviews of the literature. On the other hand, recent studies have pointed out that mandatory retention appears to be effective among students with high socioeconomic status (SES) but not on students with low socioeconomic status. It is apparent that the effectiveness of retention is somehow enhanced by SES. In this proposed study, the synergistic effect of mandatory retention and SES on students’ academic achievement will be investigated.

 

                                                                             

Table of Contents

Abstract ii

Table of Contents. iii

 

Chapter 1: Introduction. 1

Background and Justification. 2

Deficiencies in the evidence. 4

Audience. 5

Definition of Terms. 6

Purpose Statement 7

 

Chapter 2: Literature Review.. 8

Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Academic Achievement 8

The Relationship between Mandatory Retention and Academic Achievement 12

Retention and SES on Academic Achievement 15

Synthesis. 17

Theoretical Framework. 19

Conceptual Framework. 19

Research Questions. 21

 

Chapter 3: Methodology. 22

Participants. 22

Instruments. 22

Procedures. 23

Design. 23

Data Analysis. 24

Limitations. 24

 

References. 26

 

Chapter 1: Introduction

            Over the years, academic achievement has been considered as the deciding factor in students’ academic progress. Guskey (2013) defined academic achievement as the successful completion of learning goals, which are determined by teachers, parents, and school administrators. Because of this fact, academic achievement has been the determinant for nearly all policies that have been implemented in the field of education. It has become a major concern in the educational system, which is why a significant volume of research has been dedicated to finding ways on how schools are able to improve the academic achievement of students. One such way is mandatory retention, which has become the topic of discussion in the field of education for decades (Ventura, 2013).

Although there have been studies on substantiating the effectiveness of mandatory retention on the academic achievement of students (Hughes, Chen, Thoemmes & Kwok, 2010; Im, Hughes, Kwok, Puckett & Cerda, 2013; Mariano & Martorell, 2013), there are also a number of studies that have suggested otherwise (Ehmke, Drechsel, & Carstensen, 2010; Shoeneberger & Algozzine, 2012). These differences in research findings suggest t   he need for effectiveness of mandatory retention on improving academic achievement among students is not consistent. However, Tway, for Table 1. study. data there is a contingency when your CP was approved, and one oased for school year 10-11 your gra gleaning from the literature, mandatory retention seems to be effective among students who belong to a high economic status (SES) or are financially able (Ou & Reynolds, 2010; Huddleston, 2014). While this suggests the    effect of mandatory retention is somehow enhanced by students’ SES, there is lacking evidence to substantiate such effect. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the synergistic effect of mandatory retention and SES on students’ academic achievement.

 

Background and Justification

One of the efforts made by the education sector in improving and maintaining the academic achievement of students is the implementation of interventions such as the mandatory retention policy. Through mandatory retention, students who are not able to meet the academic requirements of their perspective grades are required to repeat the entire grade before being promoted. This has been part of the American educational system for decades and has been viewed as effective at the first and third grade levels in elementary schools as well as in grades 9, 10, and 11 in secondary schools (Ventura, 2013). In Florida, this policy has been put into full effect and has been salient, as the number of retained students significantly increased. The Florida cohort consisted of 3rd grade students who failed to reach the required skills and knowledge by the end of the school year (Ventura, 2013).

The research problem

Although mandatory retention has become a standard intervention for failing students especially in the state of Florida (Ventura, 2013), empirical data on the effectiveness of the intervention appears to be unclear. According to Ehmkem et al [2010] (2012), mandatory retention is not fully effective in improving the academic achievement of students. Yet, quite a number of research argue otherwise (Hughes, Chen, Thoemmes, & Kwok, 2010; Mariano & Martorell, 2013; Im, Hughes, Kwok, Puckett, & Cerda, 2013).

In the data provided by the Florida Department of Education (2014) from 2007 to 2011, there is a significant number of retained students from grades 6 to 12, which ranges from 3,607 students to 23,332 students (Table 1). Coincidentally, Florida’s Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) writing average essay scores also indicate a steady rise from 2007 to 2011 (Figure 1). An increase in terms of FCAT writing scores from 2007 to 2011 where retention was high may suggest the contribution of the retention to the increasing FCAT scores among retained students. However, no inferential statistics were presented by the department showing the causal relationship between FCAT and writing scores. Moreover, there were instances where FCAT writing scores actually declined. For example, in school year 2009 to 2010, the FCAT writing scores declined for grades four and eight, despite a significantly high number of retained students recorded in the current and previous school year. Moreover, in respect to the interests of this study, the question of concern is whether the presence of other factors has an effect on the positive relationship between mandatory retention and academic achievement.

Figure 1. FCAT writing average essay scores by grade.

Besides the possible factors that affect the positive effect of retention on academic achievement, there is evidence suggesting the ineffectiveness of retention to schools having students with low SES (Ou & Reynolds, 2010; Huddleston, 2014). Therefore, financially disadvantaged students have low tendency to succeed academically after being retained in school compared to their peers who are also retained but not financially disadvantage. Despite the existence of such evidence, it is yet to be determined if mandatory retention and SES have a positive synergistic effect on academic achievement.

Table 1.

Florida Non-promotions, Grades 6-12 (2007-2010).

School Year	Grade
	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
2007-2008	5,321	6,872	5,346	23,322	20,125	16,472	8,601
2008-2009	4,487	5,771	6,168	18,221	17,887	15,580	9,149
2009-2010	4,119	5,532	5,866	14,809	13,730	12,072	9,253
2010-2011	3,607	4,787	5,139	13,310	13,327	12,110	10,748

 

Deficiencies in the evidence

One of the possible reasons why retention is not completely effective in addressing the issues of academic achievement among elementary and secondary students is the potential effects of other variables such as SES on academic achievement. In fact, students belonging to financially impoverished families as well as those who belong to underfunded schools tend to underperform and manifest poor academic achievement. On the contrary, students who belong to higher socioeconomic status and as well as those who belong to well-funded schools have better academic performance (Considine & Zappala, 2002; Battle & Lewis, 2002; Sirin, 2005; Coe, et al., 2013; Perry & McConney, 2013). According to Baker and Johnston (2010), title 1 schools greatly underperform non-Title 1 schools in the state of Florida on the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test, thus there is still a large academic gap between Title 1 funded schools and non-Title 1 school. Title 1 is considered as the oldest and largest federally funded program which provides funding to schools for the purpose of providing assistance to needy students to enable them meet the state academic standards.

However, while there is a high volume of studies that consider the effect of retention and SES, literature lacks empirical data on how SES and retention interact in terms of academic achievement. The only evidence that can support the notion that the effect of retention on achievement can be affected by SES are studies that focus on the effect of retention with exclusive samples such, as those with low SES. Some of these studies include the ones conducted by Ou and Reynolds (2010) and Huddleston (2014) the research shows retention alone is not effective in improving academic achievement among students and schools with low SES, actually, retention is effective only among students who belong to high income families. Though mandatory retention on academic achievement is enhanced by the students’ SES, there is not enough empirical evidence to affirm the claim. It is therefore imperative for the proposed study to investigate the synergistic effect of mandatory retention and SES on academic achievement.

Audience

By investigating the synergistic effects of SES and retention on academic achievement, school administrators are able to modify various educational interventions such as grade retention depending on the SES of the school and of the students concerned. Through the potential findings of studying the synergistic effects of the two variables, schools will be able to save time and money in the attempt to address the academic concerns of its failing students.

Furthermore, teachers will also benefit from the potential results of studying the synergistic effects of SES and retention on academic achievement. Knowing how SES and retention can have a positive synergistic effect on student performance, teachers may be able to create interventions to improve student performance. Teachers may also be able to modify their teaching strategies to better suit student’s needs.

Finally, students will benefit most from this study; because the potential findings will empower administrators and teachers in effectively implementing policies and procedures to improving how students are matriculated. The study is pivotal since it may shed light on how students themselves think about mandatory retention policy and its effect on their academic lives.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Definition of terms

This section presents the definition of major concepts and terms that are related to the study:

Mandatory Grade Retention. A policy in the education system which requires failed students to repeat their last grade level in and reach their academic goals before moving on to the next grade level (Balkcom, 2014).

Socioeconomic Status. SES is usually defined as an individual’s general social position on both social and economic domains; the same concept cannot be used when studying school children. Because the concept of SES has been related to students’ academic achievement, SES will mostly refer to their parents or their family’s general social position on both social and economic domains (Considine & Zappala, 2002).

Academic Achievement. Academic achievement is referred to as the successful completion of learning goals, which are determined by teachers, parents, and school administrators (Guskey, 2013).

Synergistic

Synergistic refers to a situation whereby one has the ability to act in a cooperative or interactive manner (Balkcom, 2014).

 

Synergistic Effects

It is defined as an effect occurring between two or more factors entities or agents whereby the resulting effects is greater compared to the sum of individual effects (Considine & Zappala, 2002).

Purpose Statement

            The purpose of this study is to investigate the synergistic effects of mandatory retention and SES on the academic achievement of retained middle school students. In particular, this study aims to investigate the effects of mandatory retention and SES on academic achievement and determine if combining the effects of two variables may result to a positive synergistic effect on students’ academic achievement.

 

 

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Improving academic achievement among students in the elementary level is a significant concern for public schools throughout the United States. This is because high academic achievement is one of the major goals of educational systems in all its programs and policies (Guskey, 2013). This goal has led researchers to study the effect of various factors such as absenteeism and poverty on academic achievement (Samuels, 2008; Shah, 2013). It also served as the basis for educational policies such as the “No Child Left behind Act” of 2001 (No Child Left Behind Act of 2001) and the mandatory retention policy (The Florida Legislature, 2014). In order to achieve this goal, studies have focused largely on variables such as SES and the implementation of the mandatory retention policy.

In a report by the Department of Education in Florida in 2006, 62% of the students who repeated their third grade were found to show improvements in their academics after the succeeding year. Those who were retained also received more intensive instruction. Effective grade retention also included the utilization of reading enhancement and acceleration strategies to enable retained students to catch up with their peers (Balkcom, 2014).

Because SES appears to be one of the most significant predictors of academic achievement (Considine & Zappala, 2002) and retention as one of the most widely studied interventions to address the issues of academic achievement (Balkcom, 2014), this chapter features a review of literature on the effects of SES and mandatory retention on the academic achievement of students in elementary and middle schools. This chapter also discusses studies that tend to explore any synergistic effect of both SES and retention on student academic achievement.

Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Academic Achievement

Over the last 50 years, socioeconomic status (SES) has been seen as a hindrance to student performance. Empirical data from studies have shown the greatest influences on student academic performance and the students’ economic background, in which poverty is a key factor especially for country families (Coleman 1966). Moreover, there is also a wide gap in terms of academic achievement by SES across many standardized assessments in the United States. This gap appears to have remained unchanged since 1996, whereas students with lower SES are outperformed by students with higher SES (Aberger, Brown, Mantil, & Perkins, 2009).

Socioeconomic status is usually defined as an individual’s general social position on both social and economic domains. However, the same concept cannot be used when studying school children (Considine & Zappala, 2002). In relation to students’ academic achievement, Considine and Zapalla (2002) referred to SES to the students’ parents’ or their family’s general social position on both social and economic domains. Considine and Zapalla explores how students’ SES greatly dependents on their family’s achievement in education, employment, income, and occupational status. The research further explains one of the reasons why children who have low SES families tend to show low levels of comprehension, retention, and class participation. Low SES students also show higher levels of problematic school behaviors and difficulty on math and science subjects.

Over the past two decades, SES has become an important predictor of academic achievement across many studies in the field of education. For example, Sirin (2005) conducted a meta-analysis and found a significantly strong relationship between SES and student academic achievement from studies found between the years 1990 and 2000. In the study of Battle and Lewis (2002), SES was found to be a stronger predictor of academic achievement than race. Coe et al., (2013) found that SES is a more significant predictor of academic achievement than physical fitness.

According to Perry and McConney (2013), academic achievement is not just affected by the SES of the students but the SES of the school as well. In their study, school SES is referred to as the socioeconomic composition of a school. The strength of the relationship between school socioeconomic status and achievement was investigated between students from Canada and Australia. The findings of the study show school SES is significantly related to achievement in both countries regardless of their individual SES. These findings suggest s t ocial and economic capabilities of the schools also greatly affect the academic capabilities of the students.

The relationship between SES and academic achievement is also found to be significant among studies outside the United States. In a study conducted by Liu and Lu (2008), ninth grade students from rural areas in five provinces in China were investigated to test the relationship between SES and academic achievement. The SES of the students were measured in terms of their parents’ educational background, occupation, and family economic conditions. Using regression analysis, the results of the study shows SES is a statistical significant predictor of academic achievement among the students. Similar findings were generated in the study conducted by Sackett, et al. (2009). The study aimed to investigate whether or not SES could explain the relationship between admission tests and post-secondary academic performance. The researchers made use of immense data from admission tests, SES tests, and school grades. The findings of the study evaluated how the relationship between SES and test scores was significant.

In a socio-psychological perspective, Lam (2014) theorized that children of low SES tend to have low academic achievement because their families lack cognitively stimulating resources. Thus, these children tend to belong to classes of low caliber. This decrease in terms of cognitively stimulating resources tends to come from the stress coping strategies of the parents, parental expectations, as well as parenting. Lam explained how children advance to higher grades, teachers and parents already expect them to fail and perform lowly in their classes. This form of stereotyping produces a cycle among students of poor families in such a way that students perform low and eventually drop out of school.

According to Ballou, Sanders, and Wright (2004), it is very difficult for students from low socioeconomic environments to academically improve regardless of their ability to learn. One of the possible reasons for this is students with low SES do not effectively adapt to school life as compared to their high SES counterparts. In a study conducted by Carvalho and Novo (2012), the effect of SES on several school life dimensions were explored. The results of the study showed that the differences between low SES and high SES students transcend school grades. This means that SES influences just not test scores but also other school life domains. This suggests that students with high SES tend to adapt more to school life. They were also found to participate in extracurricular activities more and report higher sense of academic accomplishment. This is because students with higher SES have less interpersonal difficulties as compared to students with low SES.

According to Pascarella & Terenzini (2005), SES also plays an integral role in the socialization process at school. This process includes how students’ behavior and performance is in accordance to what they learn in their respective educational institutions. Pascarella & Terenzini showed students from families with low SES behave differently as compared to students from families with high SES. Such students were found to exhibit academic difficulties which are not common among other students such as the ability to adapt their brains to sub-optimal circumstances. Low-SES students also face emotional challenges, chronic stressors, acute stressors, social challenges, safety issues, healthy issues and cognitive lags. These findings were supported in the study conducted by Sackett et al. (2009). The findings of the study shows children who grow up in low-SES homes do not have the privilege of acquiring healthy relationships conducive for learning and academic achievement present among children who belong to families of higher SES. Students who experience emotional deregulation are easily frustrated and this influences their social interactions adversely. Social dysfunction affects the capacity of students to work in groups as they tend to isolate themselves. Such exclusion reduces information exchange and collaboration that would otherwise exacerbate at-risk behavior and academic achievement. Some instructors interpret the social deficits and emotional deficits of these students as poor behavior. They pose impulsive behavior, impatience, gaps in social graces, poor emotional responses and less empathy towards the misfortunes of others.

Fransoo et al. (2005) discussed importance of teachers having to know students from families with high SES tend to perform better academically than students from families with low SES. This argument also appreciates there are still many students with high SES who do not perform well and students with low SES who perform very well. The trend is not because of the case that students with low SES perform poorly (Fransoo et al 2015). The trend also shows that students with high SES have higher educational success. In their study, they found students with low SES are more likely to dropout or be retained in their current grade levels.

While SES remains one of the most influential variables in predicting academic achievement among students, educational policies and interventions were implemented in order to address the concern of failing students. One of these interventions is the grade retention of students.

The Relationship between Mandatory Retention and Academic Achievement

In order to improve academic achievement among elementary students, the mandatory retention policy was also imposed. The policy was popularly placed under study over the past 20 years. Among the mandatory retention programs in the United States, the most successful implementation was observed in the state of Florida where failing students are required to repeat their third grade should they fail to fulfill all their academic requirements (Balkcom, 2014). This practice of grade retention has been strongly disputed by educators, sociologists, and educational psychologists as empirical findings appear to be divided over the past 40 years (Dong, 2010).

There are a number of factors that affect the likelihood of grade retention among students. According to Seidman (2005), failure to master content and unfriendly educational environments is a primary cause of retention. Other factors include family, teacher and student factors, classroom conduct, and subject matter grades. Residential mobility, socio-economic disadvantage, frequent school mobility and low educational attainment by parents also increase the risk of retention for academic underachievers.

Studies have been conducted to test the effectiveness of the intervention and have revealed mixed results. For example, Mariano and Martorell (2013) investigated the academic effects of summer instruction versus grade retention in English and Math scores in New York City. The researchers made use of a research design that exploited test score cutoffs used in assignment to the mentioned interventions. The results of the study showed that summer instruction had a significant positive effect on English language arts, but not on math scores. On the other hand, the results of the study shows grade retention had a significantly positive effect on both math and English language arts scores through seventh grade. The findings of the study necessitate an additional year of instruction in fifth grade leads to higher academic achievement among the students.   The findings in the study conducted by Hughes, Chen, Thoemmes, and Kwok (2010) also suggested there is a significant relationship between mandatory retention and academic achievement. The researchers investigated the relationship between grade retention in first grade and passing the third grade state accountability tests in reading and math.   Using a sample consisting of 769 first grade students, the findings showed a positive relationship between retention and math scores as students reached their third grade. A small yet still significant relationship was found between retention and reading scores.

Im, Hughes, Kwok, Puckett, and Cerda (2013) investigated the effects of retention on elementary student’s transition to middle school. The researchers hypothesized; retained students would encounter difficulties in terms of their academic performance as they transition to middle school. On the contrary, the results of the study shows retained studies did not exhibit any difference across measures in terms of school performance before or after retention. Therefore, retention does not harm the school performance of retained students when they reach middle school; actually, they are “old for their age”.

Though retention is an effective intervention in improving academic achievement of students, there are also studies that imply that retention actually harms the academic performance of students in the elementary grade levels. In a study conducted by Tingle, Schoeneberger, and Algozzine (2012), the characteristics and consequences of retaining students in elementary and middle schools were investigated. The researchers documented rates of retention and found such rates were lower than those reported in the literature. Differences were found for gender, ethnic background, limited English proficiency, exceptional student classification, and grade. The findings of the study suggested for grade retention claiming it does not change the gap in achievement between retained and non-retained students. The findings also suggested retention is not an effective method of academic intervention for struggling students. In a study conducted by Ehmkem Drechsel, and Carstensen (2010), the effect of grade retention on achievement and self-concept of students in terms of science and mathematics subjects among 9^th grade students was investigated. The researchers compared achievement and self-concept data between retained and non-retained students. The findings of the study showed improvements in self-concept in math among retained students. However, the results shows retention had no statistical significant effect on students’ achievement in terms of both math and science subjects.

According to Jimerson and Ferguson (2007), retention does not only have a negative effect on the academic achievement of students but also on their behavior. In their longitudinal study, the researchers compared four samples: early grade retainers, students who were retained in transition classrooms, students who were recommended for transitional placement but were promoted, and regularly promoted students. The results of the study shows there is no evidence to claim mandatory retention had an effect on academic achievement. Moreover, the findings shows retained students displayed more aggression during adolescence.

The results of the study of Jimerson and Ferguson (2007) were supported in the study of Range, Pijanowski, and Holt (2009) in their longitudinal literature review on grade retention. The researchers of the study were based on the studies included in the review; there are more negative effects of retention on children than there are positive effects. The literature affirms the benefits of retention are most often short-lived.

Retention and SES on Academic Achievement

At present, a large portion of literature on SES and academic achievement suggests that SES is a significant factor in determining how students are able to perform in school (Considine & Zappala, 2002; Battle & Lewis, 2002; Sirin, 2005; Coe, et al., 2013; Perry & McConney, 2013). Mandatory grade retention also remains as one of the most widely used interventions in addressing the needs of failing students (Dong, 2010; Balkcom, 2014). In the United States, retention rates had risen to 15 percent per annum in 2009 and Xia et al. (2009) showed that retention rates are higher among the minority, poor and inner-city youth. While studies continue to be conducted concerning these variables, there are only a few studies that focus on the combined effects of the two variables in terms of academic achievement. These few studies involve those conducted by Ou and Reynolds (2010) and Huddleston (2014).

Huddleston (2014) conducted a review of literature on the effect of test-based grade retention policies on academic achievement. Using Maxwell’s method of literature review for educational research, Huddleston found there are studies suggesting average gains in academic achievement through grade-based retention among students. However, Huddleston affirmed these gains are only short-term and gradually fade over time as students eventually fall behind along with a large likelihood of dropping out of school. These findings also appear to be most evident among students belonging to ethnic minority and impoverished groups. These findings foretell the effect of grade retention on academic achievement among students is short-lived, considering the students belonged to ethnic minority groups and those with low SES.

In a similar study, Ou and Reynolds (2010) conducted an investigation on grade retention, post-secondary education, and the receipt of public aid, using data from the Chicago Longitudinal Study (CLS). The study highlighted a panel of low-income minority children who grew up in an inner city. The researchers tested if retention is associated with participation in post-secondary education as well as public aid receipt. Using regression and propensity score matching based on the data from 1,367 participants, the results of the study showed grade retention is significantly associated with lower rates of participation in post-secondary education. Late retention (between fourth and eighth grades) was found to be associated to lower rates of post-secondary education as compared to early retention (between first and third grades). Furthermore, there was no significant relationship found between retention and public aid receipt.

Synthesis

            Based on the recent studies reviewed in this chapter, there appears to be three main trends in research related to the effects of mandatory retention and SES on student academic achievement. The first trend articulates SES has a very significant effect on academic achievement. The second trend suggests the effects of mandatory retention on academic achievement is conditional and is not always effective, while the third is evaluates the combined or synergistic effects of retention and SES on academic achievement is not thoroughly explored.

Over the last 50 years, it appears that the effect of SES has been consistent across various studies in terms of student outcomes (Aberger, Brown, Mantil, & Perkins, 2009). Literature suggests that there is firm evidence to suggest that SES has a significant effect on student academic achievement (Considine & Zappala, 2002; Battle & Lewis, 2002; Sirin, 2005; Fransoo et al., 2005; Liu & Lu, 2008; Sackett et al., 2009; Coe et al., 2013; Perry & McConney, 2013; Lam, 2014). According to the study, students with low SES tend to achieve less academically compared to students with high SES. One of the apparent reasons for such difference is affirmed by the findings claiming students with high SES tend to adapt more to school life and have fewer difficulties in terms of interpersonal relationships. On the other hand, students with low SES tend to have more difficulties in adjusting to school environments with less cognitive and material resources to aid their learning experiences (Fransoo et al., 2005; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Sackett et al., 2009; Carvalho & Novo, 2012). As Sackett et al. (2009) explained, children who grow up in low-SES homes do not have the privilege of acquiring healthy relationships conducive for learning and academic achievement that are present among children who belong to families of higher SES. Furthermore, SES was even found to predict even grade retention among students (Considine & Zappala, 2002).

Although recent researchers were unanimous on the effect of SES on academic achievement, findings were solidly divided on the effect of mandatory retention on academic achievement. While recent studies conducted by Mariano and Martorell (2013), Hughes, Chen, Thoemmes, and Kwok (2010), and Im et al. (2013) have concluded claiming mandatory retention to be effective intervention, while studies by Tingle, Schoeneberger, and Algozzine (2012), Ehmkem Drechsel, and Carstensen (2010), Jimerson and Ferguson (2007), and Range, Pijanowski, and Holt (2009) have all concluded otherwise. This significant difference in conclusions drawn suggests mandatory retention is not effective all the time, if not at all.

If mandatory retention is not always effective in improving academic achievement among students, then when is it effective Based on the results of the studies on SES on academic achievement, there is a possibility that the positive effects of retention are synergistic with SES. For example, Huddleston’s (2014) findings suggest the benefits of retention among students with low SES do not persist in the long run because students are more likely to drop out of school. This was supported by the findings of Ou and Reynolds (2010) which suggested retention among students with low SES is not effective in improving the performance and achievement. Because students lack the socioeconomic privileges enjoyed by students with higher SES, Also, student with low SES are not able to adjust to the demands of their academic environment, even more so when they are retained for another year (Sackett et al., 2009).

Although empirical data on the influence of SES on academic achievement have been conclusive, data on mandatory retention were found to be inconsistent across studies. Moreover, the recent studies on the combined or synergistic effects of SES and retention appear to be insufficient, which means there is a significant gap in the literature which needs to be addressed. Thus, there is a need to study the synergistic effects of SES and retention on the academic achievement of students.

Theoretical Framework

            The present study leans on the transactional model of development formulated by Sameroff and Chandler in 1975. The model focuses on the interrelationship between individuals and their environments. The main idea of the model suggests the contact between the individual and the environment is a transaction in which each tends to be altered by the other. Moreover, this transaction has a significant effect on succeeding interactions in a continuous fashion (Jimerson, Carlson, Rotert, Egeland, & Sroufe, 1997). Because of this transaction, behaviors are therefore always a product of a person’s developmental history (Sameroff, 1992; Jimerson, et al., 1997).

In relation to retention, SES, and academic achievement, the model claim a student’s developmental history has a number of characteristics contributing to the likelihood of retention and affect academic achievement. Hence, in order to understand the effects of various variables on academic outcomes among students, it is essential to cite the transactional nature of the students’ history and experiences (Sroufe et al., 1999). In other words, the model considers the interplay of various factors (e.g. retention and SES) across time, rather than claiming each of these factors to have a direct and causal effect on various outcomes such as academic achievement.

The present study leans on the transactional model of development in way where both SES and retention are viewed not as individual variables with direct causal effects on academic achievement. Rather, this study leans on the understanding of the interplay of both SES and retention has a significant effect on the academic achievement of students.

Conceptual Framework

This proposed study leans on the concept that socioeconomic status and mandatory retention have a positive synergistic effect towards academic achievement among students. The rationale for this concept leans on the notion whereby the effect of mandatory retention is not consistent across all samples and settings. Empirical research has demonstrated how mandatory retention can affect the academic achievement of students but the findings of these studies are contradicting (Ehmkem Drechsel, & Carstensen, 2010; Hughes, Chen, Thoemmes, & Kwok, 2010; Tingle, Schoeneberger, & Algozzine, 2012; Mariano & Martorell, 2013; Im, Hughes, Kwok, Puckett, & Cerda, 2013). On the other hand, SES has been found to be one of the most significant predictors of student academic achievement (Battle & Lewis, 2002; Sirin, 2005; Liu & Lu, 2008; Sackett et al., 2009; Perry & McConney, 2013). Some studies have also suggested that grade retention is not an effective intervention among schools and students with low SES (Ou & Reynolds, 2010; Huddleston, 2014). According to the Synergism Theory of Corning (1998), the functional effects of a phenomenon are produced by different combination of factors. This creates a synergistic effect, which suggests the combined effects of different factors are different from the effect of a single factor by itself. In the present study, the theory suggests that SES combined with grade retention creates a synergistic positive effect on academic achievement that is different from its separate effects. Based on these findings, this proposed study conceptualizes the effectiveness of the mandatory retention program on student academic achievement is affected by the SES of students and the schools. Figure 2 shows the conceptual paradigm of the study:

Figure 2. Conceptual Paradigm.

Research Questions

The aim of this proposed study is to investigate the synergistic effects of the mandatory retention policy and SES on the academic achievement of retained middle school students based on their life experiences. In particular, this study aims to answer the following research questions:

1. What is the effect of SES on student achievement among retained middle school students
2. What is the effect of grade retention on academic achievement among middle school students
3. What is the synergistic effect of SES and mandatory retention on academic achievement among middle school students

 

 

Chapter 3: Methodology

In response to the gaps in the recent literature and the need to conduct a study, this chapter presents the proposed method for investigating the synergistic effect of SES and retention on the academic achievement of students. This chapter includes a discussion on the participants, instruments used, procedures, and the limitations of the study.

Participants

The participants in this proposed study will be the student population of middle school students at a Title I public school in Central Florida. Selection of the participants will be done through the use of purposive sampling. Criteria for the sample include students who are in their middle school grades and are officially enrolled at a Title I school in Central Florida. The prospected participants must have available data on SES and grade retention. Other demographic characteristics such as age, gender, and ethnicity will not be controlled in this study. Data such as socio economic status, retention, and Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test scores will be obtained for the students. All data used to conduct academic information will be retrieved through the Student Management System and Enterprise Data Warehouse.

Because no direct contact with the student body will be made in this proposed study, permission from the school principal to conduct the study and gather data will be secured. The school will also be assured that the identities of the students will not be disclosed in this study.

Instruments

In order to attain students’ SES and retention data, the present study will make use of the Student Management System and Enterprise Data Warehouse. These instruments will enable the researcher to access students’ demographic data. To assess the students’ academic achievement, this proposed study will use scores from the Florida comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT). The FCAT is a state-wide, norm-referenced test administered to all students in the state of Florida from grades 3 to 11. The test is used for the purpose of educational assessment and accountability. The FCAT features criterion-referenced tests used to measures students’ progress in comparison to statewide benchmarks. Scores are assigned on a five-level grading scheme wherein levels 3 to 5 are considered as passing (Suldo & Shaffer, 2008).

Procedures

            Design

This proposed study will be quantitative in terms of research methodology and will be matched-group in terms of design. There will be two independent variables and one dependent variable in the study. The independent variables will be the students’ SES and retention. SES is operationally defined in the study as to whether the student belongs to a low or high socioeconomic status; the economics of the student of either being from rich or poor background is evaluated according to the family earning and parent professionalism.   A child from a family earning less than $1000 per month is considered to be poor. Also, parents with unreliable job also fall under the low SES category while those with reliable job and earning above $3000 per month are considered to be under high SES. Hence, SES will have two levels, which is ‘high’ and ‘low’. Retention is operationally defined as whether the student has been retained in his/her current grade or not. The variable will have two levels which are ‘retained’ and ‘not retained’. Both SES and retention will be determined by the Student Management System and Enterprise Data Warehouse. The dependent variable in the study is academic achievement, which is operationally defined by the students’ academic performance as measured by the FCAT.

The study will include data from the total population of retained middle school at a Title I school in the United States Public Schools in the state of Florida, as identified using the Student Management System and Enterprise Data Warehouse. Afterwards, data from a matched group of regularly promoted students will be obtained using the same system as their SES will also be recorded. All the students’ FCAT scores will then be collected and subjected to statistical analysis.

            Data Analysis

After the data gathering process has been completed, the data will be subjected to a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test. The test will produce three particular results, each answering one of the three research questions. Two of the results will determine if SES and retention will have a significant effect on academic achievement, while the third result will answer as to whether the SES and retention have a synergistic effect on academic achievement. In the data analysis, the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) will be the computer software to be used.

Limitations

            This proposed study aimed to investigate the synergistic effect of SES and mandatory retention on the academic achievement of students. Hence, the study aims to determine if SES and retention have an effect on achievement separately, and whether or not these effects interact with each other thereby forming a synergistic effect. While these are the main goals of the current research, the study also has a number of limitations. These limitations include the students who participated in the study, the measures used, and the study not controlling for other variables such as age and gender.

The first limitation of the study is the sample comprising of only middle school students from a Title I school in Central Florida. This means that students from other schools and from other areas will not be included in the study. Students from other grade levels will also not be included in the study. Although this is a limitation in the study, it would also be ideal for the study to be conducted among middle school students because such students are primary recipients of retention from earlier grades. In the study of Ou and Reynolds (2010), it was found that retention during the first to third grades yield better school outcomes as compared to retention in higher grades. It is also expected that the number of retained students needed will be achieved if the study is conducted among middle school students as there is a possibility that a bulk of retained students have already dropped out of school during their higher years (Fransoo, et al., 2005; Huddleston, 2014).

The second limitation in the study is the measures for academic achievement. This proposed study will make use of the FCAT as the assessment tool in measuring academic achievement among the participants. The test is only applied to students within the state of Florida, which makes it not replicable among students from different states and countries. Moreover, there are other assessment tools which make use of different parameters for academic achievement, making this a potential threat to the reliability of the potential findings. On the other hand, it is important to take note that the FCAT is still a standardized test and is considered valid throughout the state of Florida, making the test suitable to answer the research questions in this study.

Finally, the study will not include other demographic variables such as age and gender. The criteria for participant selection will be limited to middle school students at a Title 1 school in Central Florida, regardless of age and gender. The study leans on the assumption that a significant statistical effect is means that the effects of the independent variables on the dependent variable are real and not by chance or coincidence (Rubin & Babbie, 2011).

 

 

 

 

 

References

 

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