Posted: March 18th, 2022

Ethnography as a ways of Conducting Social Research

Ethnography as a ways of Conducting Social Research

Draft
Participant observation (ethnography) is very crucial for conducting social research in various disciplines. This approach to research has been utilized in sociological research work for a long time. It is still found to be relevant and very crucial in sociological research today. It is found to be very useful in studying groups, which could be an isolated ethnic group, an occupational group among others. Unlike other forms of research, ethnography allows the researcher to participate and immerse himself in group’s activities and lifestyle. The researcher temporarily becomes one of the group members before observing and collecting data about the group. Data collection may occur in a manner similar to observation. The ethnographer may also learn a lot about the group to an extent that he is able to adequately respond to all questions, although questions may be asked to the group.
Several researchers in social sciences hold varying views concerning ethnography, and some hails the research approach. One of such includes a sociologist named Goffman who claimed that it was the only meaningful way to carry out any significant sociological research work. Other researchers have had varying points of view concerning Goffman’s assertion. On the other hand, others have worked independently to find out both the strengths and shortcomings of ethnography including how to effectively respond to them.

Ethnography as a ways of Conducting Social Research
Introduction
In the paradigm of qualitative research, participant observation (ethnography) is one of the most applied methodologies in the collection of data. Participant observation is used in a wide array of disciplines which include ethnology, cultural; anthropology, human geography, sociology psychology and communication studies among others (Burgess 1984). Compared with other methodologies, it offers a unique opportunity for the researchers to collect the most authentic data from a given group. This is one of the greatest reasons why ethnography is very important and widely accepted in data collection. Unlike interviews, questionnaires, surveys and other methods, the researcher collects data primarily from observation. He/she does not have to always ask the members of the involved group. In the other methodologies, members of the studied community may choose to offer skewed information for various reasons. However, in participant observation, the researcher immerses himself in the studied community to a point that he might be considered as one of them. Afterwards, he observes the community’s various aspects according to the goal of the research (West 1996). This paper aims at expounding how Participant observation is the best way to conduct sociological research. Advantages that accrue from the use of participant observation will be discussed as well as various reasons as to why it is widely accepted by researchers. On the other hand, the paper will also look into the disadvantages of this process as well as various reasons why some researchers think it is disadvantageous.
Erving Goffman (June 1922-November 1982) is considered to have been the greatest and the most influential sociologist of the 20th century (Hammersley & Atkinson 1987). This happened because of crucial impact he made to sociology. The Times Higher Education Guide ranked Goffman the sixth author in the list of the most cited in humanities. His work saw him become the 73 president of American Sociological Association after gaining marked recognition owing to his in-depth study in ‘symbolic interaction’. According to Goffman (1974) no serious research work can be done about a group without the researcher being actively engaged in the group’s life. He argued that by joining the group (the community researched about), the researcher becomes very close to them and is able to clearly see how they live. He is also able to see how they respond to various forces that occur in their lives. Goffman statement shows how important it is for the researcher to participate in a groups’ life in order to study them effectively. Various other researchers have come up, some to support Goffman and others to dispute his remarks. Goffman among other researchers who support participant observation points out that it has several advantages over other methodologies. The researcher gains close and friendly understanding with the group involved which could be a religious group, an isolated community among others. He becomes intensively involved with the people and learns their cultural environment over an adequate period of time which greatly increases the quality and the accuracy of the information obtained by the researcher.
Goals and objectives
Despite the profuse hailing of ethnography by Goffman and various researchers, it would be hard for a person wishing to carry out research to understand why it is advantageous. Additionally, despite the many advantages that ethnography has, it has its disadvantages or limitations. There are a set of conditions that it requires, above other methodologies, not to mention that it consumes more time. However, researchers consider it sometimes worth to spend more resources in terms of time and money and obtain objective results that can be utilized for further research or affirmative action.
The objective of this paper is to find out what are these advantages that Goffman and other researchers think that ethnography has over other methods. This is very important bearing in mind that more and more sociological research will need to be carried out in future for various reasons. For this reason, better methods that will help achieve the best results need to be singled out. This can be achieved through evaluating if Goffman’s conclusion about ethnography is superior is right. On the other hand, other researchers have disputed Goffman’s conclusion. According to them, ethnography is not advantageous or significantly beneficial over other methods. This research aims to evaluate and discuss the views of both sides of the discussions in order to find out if ethnography is indeed superior.
Revelation that ethnography is more superior over other methods will mean that Goffman’s assertion that no sociological research of any significance can be done without the researcher being is involved in the group is true. On the other hand, if sociological research can adequately be carried out without participant observation; this means that Goffman’s assertion is untrue. This paper will test the hypothesis that Goffman assertions are true and that no sociological research of any significance can be carried out without the researcher participating fully in groups’ activity (May 2011).
Literature Review
According to Brewer (2000) Ethnography is primarily used in studying a group of people having shared identity, interests or culture. Data is gathered in a ‘natural settings’ which means that in a scenario that has not been prepared for the intended research (Brewer, 2000). Generally, it is all about the researcher getting into the particular culture or social field that they are studying and being among the subjects of study for a particular period of time in order to get a firsthand experience of whatever they want to find out. This type of objective observation and documentation is important because the researcher will learn how the group communicate, the specific cultural habits they value and the reasons behind them and also know the structure of the group’s social relationships. Ethnography has evolved overtime, it is important for ethnographic researchers to go as far as possible in interpreting the lives of their subjects even though this possibility generates debate. According to brewer, although social anthropologists like using ethnographic methods, sociologists have also adopted it and have used it in studying micro-groups that have a particular societal of origin.
Various observation methods applied by researchers are covert/overt participation observation among others. Overt participant observation is the most frequently used method with regard to contemporary social research. The researcher informs his subjects of his interests and aims and the purpose he wants to fulfill before he starts observing them. For this research to be successful, the researcher must be involved in the various events and activities that the research subjects are involved in but still be able to keep a professional distance that will enable him to record the data adequately and objectively in a field journal.
The covert participation observation has come under criticism and has been categorized as ethically unsound even though it has helped to provide some useful insight in to social fields that would normally be difficult for the researcher to access and an example include research involving criminal groups. In this case the researcher carries out his research on a group of people without their knowledge. A good example of this kind of secret research is the one carried out in 1968 by Goffman, which was known as ‘stigma’ on the mentally ill which was conducted in an asylum (Goffman 1974). He acted as the Assistant Athletic Director of the asylum and members of the hospital didn’t know that he was carrying out a research.
According to Gilbert (2001), ethnographers are able to investigate very complex issues that may be complicated for quantitative methods like surveys to solve. These many be societal interactions, cultural, difficult relationships and even unpredictable situations. In situations like these, ethnographers have the ability to get the information out of the research subjects in a friendly way that doesn’t offend the subject group. Ethnography serves to display the various basics of group’s interactions due to the fact that ethnographers normally take detailed and structured notes during the interviews, observation and various others methods. The researcher therefore ends up with a deeper understanding of his research subjects with a validity described as “thick description.” The researcher is able to get an insight in to the lives and customs of the people being studied that one wouldn’t get by simply asking.
According to Hammersley & Atkinson (1983) Ethnography provides a voice for understanding. This is in the form of giving cultures an opportunity to verbalize their views and perspectives which are normally overpowered by the dominant culture and never get a chance to be expressed. An ethnographer has the task of understanding a particular group’s point of view in precise scenarios under study and not depending on predictable hierarchies of reliability. As a result, people outside the culture are able to have an understanding of the group and their reasons for the way they are including how they live. It is possible to find that some people themselves do not understand some things about their way of life and ethnographies can bring these to their attention. They can even learn how best to intermingle with the people from outside their culture.
The fact that the researcher in this case lives among the group, maintains relationships with them, is involved in their community activities makes it possible for him to see and understand their culture from the group’s point of view and not force the social reality the researcher knows about that culture. One is therefore able to actually get the research findings that may even surprise them especially if they had previous theoretical knowledge of the group and discovered the opposite in reality. In this way, the researcher can get the difference between what is said and what is done.
According to B & Lewin (2011), people commonly behave differently after knowing they are being observed, consequently, the researcher may be unable to get the factual picture. Participant observation serves to eliminate this to a significant extent in that the people being observed are able to relax after some time with the researcher and go on with their daily lives therefore enabling the researcher to get an actual insight in to their lifestyle and accomplish the aim of the study. When the researcher immerses himself in the culture being studied, he may get to know how the people think and be able to restructure or come up with questions that are more appropriate for the particular situation including ones that are relevant in the native language. There have been cases of researchers who have even managed to learn the native language and this has put them at an advantage as the group can relate with them enabling the research process to be successful. This means that participant observation can encourage invention of new hypothesis or research questions (B & Lewin 2011).
According to Esterberg (2002), there are times when participant observation is the only way that a researcher can use to gather data for a particular group of people or culture. For example, if someone is researching on a community that is closed off from the rest of the people and it requires intricate details of their lives then there is no way around it except by involving oneself in that particular community.
As much as the participant observation method is praised by many researchers, there are others who believe it has been given too much credit and its limitations have been ignored. This method of social research has been attacked by postmodern critics who argue that it is not a true representation of reality while others claim that its application has been narrowed by globalization.
According to Denzin, N K (1989) Ethnography is expensive, protracted and difficult due to the fact that it greatly relies on the ethnographer, making it hard to repeat and gain similar results. In addition, a lot of training is required by an ethnographer before setting out for the research process. This is to enable him to know how to carry out the various qualitative methods in research sociology, take notes, and alternate the methods of data collection, analysis and even the language of the people they are supposed to interact with. After going in to the field, people do not normally just open up and invite strangers in to their world so there is a process of building trust that the ethnographer has to go through which makes the process even more time consuming. The next step includes getting in to the ethnographer’s role in order to gather the required data, take notes and analyze the group. Ethnographers may also go through culture shock when they involve themselves in foreign cultures which might affect the results. They could also experience feelings of awkwardness, loneliness and incongruous in the research process. In extreme cases, they may encounter occasional personal danger, which makes them to be alert and avoid various instances, some of which could even endanger their lives.
According to Goodley, Lawthom, Clough & Moore (2004), another challenge associated with ethnography is the fact that the ethnographers are required to give ethics an extra attention in the course of their studies. The cultures studied by ethnographers are sometimes sensitive and ethnographers may be exposed to exploitation without any safeguards. Ethnographers are often guilty of going in to the research process with their culture and prejudice which may end up influencing how they carry out the research and record data. There are cases where the researchers may not disclose their biasness in their findings and so they are taken to be true. There are other instances where ethnographer’s presence serves to change the culture which hampers the results. It is therefore a constant struggle to keep biasness out of ethnographic studies in order to get the correct facts on the ground.
According to Reinharz (1992) another issue is that ethnography studies small groups of people. The findings may not act as a representative for the rest of the population. Its scope is also limited meaning it is difficult for it to be used for worldwide analysis. One of the most significant shortcomings of ethnography in several cultures is that it may not cover women’s point of view, ethnographers may relate well with men while women are busy with chores which reduces their participation. In most cases, questions about women are answered from men’s perspective which may leave out women’s views (Reinharz 1992).
As the literature above asserts, ethnography as a methodology for carrying out sociological research generates mixed reactions. Some researchers find it useful and advantageous while others think it is more disadvantageous than other methods that could be employed for similar purpose. Others suggest that its usefulness is being eroded over time adding that more and more of limitations are being revealed. However, they all agree that it is useful for some types of research. In addition, it offers solutions that cannot be availed by methods such as surveys, questionnaires or any other.
It is a research methodology that can combine the largest number of data collection techniques in one research. At the same time, Esterberg (2002) concludes that there are several research situations where no other methodology can be applied. For instance, it is possible to have a group which very little is known about making it hard for researchers to set the scope of research or even formulate hypotheses or research questions. An ethnographer or a group of them can set out to that isolated group, start living upon them, gauge the scope and the number of possible researches and run them either singly or simultaneously. Ethnography remains very crucial and is considered as the methodology that can avail the data with the highest level of credibility.
Procedure
This research adopts secondary approach to collection of data. Various researchers in the field of sociology, social sciences and humanities, human geography among others have researched and authored academic materials about ethnography. Some of them have also applied this methodology in one or several researches. These materials will form a crucial part for analysis to find out if ethnography is still the best methodology for carrying out sociological research. Journals and articles too have been authored about the topic. Secondary sources of data will be applied in this research because it is cheap and saves time. This is unlike primary methods like surveys, questionnaires among others that may take much time to design, administer, collect and analyze responses. Additionally, the researcher needs only to get the materials and obtain information desired.
One of the most crucial reasons why secondary sources of data are preferred is that it avails views of various researchers and experts. Each of the textbooks authored by each of these experts contains views. These people possess remarkable educational training and professional experience. This allows the researcher to borrow and compare the points of view held by all authors and therefore make a decision based on several of them. In this research, various points of views of researchers concerning ethnography will be analyzed. In addition, various views concerning Goffman’s assertion will be evaluated to see if they are in favor or against.

Results
Merits and Demerits of Ethnography
Ethnography is said to be the most exhaustive studies compared to all the rest. The study focuses on the field work and involves the researcher being in the field or the environment in which the study is being done. The researcher collects data in a manner similar to observation but this is a detailed and long. In sociological studies, the researcher is not only required to observe but also asks questions and may also consider subtle surveys as appropriate. For this reason, researchers agree that it provides the most detailed information concerning the group being researched about. This makes it very advantageous as it enables exhaustive insight of a group’s culture among others. Apart from this advantage, ethnography has many other advantages as seen below.
Other forms of studies are usually very structured in terms of time and the scope of research. This may even limit the amount of data to be collected by the researcher and makes him to focus his inquiry or observation to a very narrow scope. For this reason, such study methodologies result to the researcher getting expected results that are less useful. The methods do not allow the full range of information in the group being researched to be captured. However, ethnography offers marked flexibility as it allows the researcher to get all the information about a given group of people. Over a period in which the researcher participates and observes the group being researched, the researcher is able to isolate which behavior is permanent and which one is not. Additionally, the extended period of time allows the researcher an opportunity to capture all the information about the study group.

Another advantage that ethnography has is that it allows the researcher to explore and confront any notions that are taken for granted. This happens as the researcher has adequate time to cover such behavior. In ethnography, assumptions are generally minimized as compared to all other methods. The researcher follows any lead or notion of a behavior to its conclusion.
Thirdly, ethnography unlike other methods of study avails to the researcher with very many points of view to consider and evaluate. For instance, in studying the culture of a group, the researcher can over time ask various questions about the group’s culture. At the same time, he could be observing various aspect of the culture which gives him many perspectives to consider, refine and harmonize. This is very important as it helps the researcher have a more objective view than having to draw a conclusion from only one point of view.
Fourthly, ethnography becomes the only study method applicable in several instants. An example of such may include very isolated communities where very little information is known about them. In these instances, there is usually a need to collect diverse data to act as a baseline on which future research can be carried out. In this case, no other research can be applicable which makes ethnography very crucial.
Lastly the most crucial aspect of ethnography is the fact that the researcher immerses himself in the group’s life such that he is sometimes viewed as becoming one of them. Through this long period, ethnographers are able to achieve a lot. Interviews, surveys, questionnaires may fail to reveal the true picture of a group’s culture among other aspects being studied. This reason for this is that the respondents relay information depending on how they would love to be perceived and not how their community is. Sometimes, the respondents may also give untrue information either due to fear or lack of time among other reasons. In ethnography, the researcher asks his questions and makes his observation over a long period of time. His questions may be mixed with other questions such that the answer is not skewed. Over time, ethnographer is able to participate in cultural events that may be considered sensitive and unfit for ‘strangers’. The extended period of time has been seen to make the group view the ethnographer as one of their own. Apart from asking question, one of the most crucial aspects of data collection is observation. Ethnographer does not necessarily need to ask questions about a group’s culture, customs and believes among others. The most important data collection technique for an ethnographer is to deeply participate in a group’s activity as one of them and observe. He will be able to learn their customs, believes, cultural events, festivities among others. He will also be able to observe how the group reacts or has reacted to various forces in its environment. This should be followed by note taking and recording of information later on.
The conservative nature of ethnography enables it to be utilized either in a sensitive environment for instance among the mentally ill people, criminal gangs among others. The researcher does not need to reveal his identity as this could endanger his life of affect the responses received. This may raise some ethical concerns which may be over-ruled by the potential gains of such a processes. In some cases, the researched group may not be able to communicate well or might not communicate at all. Such groups may involve mentally ill people, among others. An ethnographer is able to study them through observation as they carry on with their lives (Merrill & West 2009). The above advantages are the basis of what Goffman said; it is very important for an ethnographer to participate in a group and engage in participant observation as it is the only way through which all the above advantages can be realized. Otherwise the quality of the research conducted may be very low and the information received may not be meaningful.

Despite all the above advantages of ethnography that makes it very superior in carrying out sociological research, some researcher do not agree with Goffman. They hold the opinion that sociological research can be done in a group without the researchers participating in it. However, hardly any researcher has come up with an alternative for ethnography where all other methods are not applicable or may not provide any meaningful information. These researchers only describe the shortcomings that occur while carrying out ethnography. It is very important to note that other processes too have their shortcomings (Flick 2009). Some shortcomings that are cited that accrue from the use of ethnography include the following.
Due to the nature of ethnography, various challenges are faced when it is applied. It requires highly trained researchers who must possess a vast knowledge in research and living among various communities. This means that researchers need specialized training alongside practical experience (Roberts). This goes hand in hand with effective supervision and expertise in data analysis after the research is done. Some researchers claim that this could be very expensive; however, all other research methods may require the same which means that ethnography is note that expensive.
Ethnography becomes very sensitive as it deals with people’s cultures. Due to sensitivity that culture has, the researcher is always asked to exercise utmost caution to avoid annoying the researched group. This makes it rather complicated. The researcher has to avoid experiencing any culture shock that would make the group to react in an expected way. Additionally, the researcher should not comment on the culture or try to compare his culture with the groups’ (Flick 2009).
Another challenge that is experienced by ethnographers is that the research group is mostly isolated and my pose challenges to researchers attempting to access the group being studied. Opponents of ethnography exemplify this challenge without realizing that ethnography could be the only means of research that can be conducted successfully in such areas. In addition, all other forms of data collection would also need a researcher or a group of them to access the group. In other words, accessibility and logistical problems are not only encountered by ethnographers but many other groups conducting research in isolated areas or groups of people. Some organizations may also be very secretive or guarded which may also make ethnography very challenging. Some of organizations may not allow an intruder to live among them which complicates ethnography. This this fact has been used severally to show the limitations of ethnography, opponents do not point out that groups that cannot allow researchers to live among them, for instance the military and other disciplined forces do not even entertain other forms methods of carrying out research. This limitation does not only apply to ethnography but to several other methods of carrying out research (Weinburg N.D).
Participant observation takes a long time, as the researcher needs to have time to live among the studied group in order to build trust. It is technically a long process and consumes much time as compared to any other method. Some ethnographers may also fail to check their feelings in data collection and analysis which may lead to biasness. Ethnographers may have a comparison between his culture and the studied culture which may reflect in the data recorded. Making ethnographers to totally disconnect with their cultures and what they consider as norms while living in the studied group can be challenging (May 2011). Descriptive approach: It has a story telling approach which can impose as a limitation for the audience to link and can be a bit challenging for the authors that are used to the conventional approach to scientific writing.
The analysis of data collected in ethnography can be challenging. This is because the data is collected over a large period of time and the fact that a large amount of data is collected. Experienced ethnographers may have less or no problem with this, however, new and inexperienced ethnographers may find it hard even to stay focused in extended periods of time and in a strange environment. This is where experience and supervision becomes very important as it assists to rectify or counter the effects of such. Researchers can and have in custom essay writing service  many instances overcome all the shortcomings of ethnography to collect and analyze meaningful data that has revealed the true picture on the ground (Plummer 2001). As seen earlier, it draws its strengths from the fact that the studied grow will be going on with their lives as the ethnographer observes them. The data collected is holistic and descriptive.
Conclusion
Ethnographic research has been established to be very useful by many researchers as seen earlier in this paper. This has been particularly due to the fact that it is able to offer the actual events and various aspects of group’s culture in a particular setting or group over a long period of time, which eliminates observation errors. This does not mean it doesn’t come with its share of limitations. However, every sociological research approach has its advantages and disadvantages, which cannot form enough grounds to merely dismiss it. Ethnographers have in many instances found ways of working around these limitations in order to utilize the method effectively. The researched group lacks room to modify their responses to the researcher, as the researcher observes various aspects himself. At the same time, the studied group is not likely change their culture in response to ethnographers presence as he lives among them for long enough until they are able to trust him . Participant observer achieves this by not giving too much importance to first impression but actually giving the process time: facts reveal themselves over time. The best way to get true findings in participant observation is to interact with the research subjects in a way that is natural and non- threatening and one will be able to achieve the purpose of their study and get correct facts.
The fact that participant observation enables the researcher to understand the phenomenon being studied not only from his perspective but also from those being studied makes the findings more real. Ethnography is therefore not just some kind of research that employs external experiments and manipulating variables to get results according to the researchers’ objective. For this reason, Goffman (1974) was right in that no sociological research of any significance can be conducted without the researcher participating in the group’s activity and observing it from within.

Reference list
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